Chapter 10

Switching DC Power Supplies

• One of the most important applications of power

electronics
Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 Linear Power Supplies

• Very poor efficiency and large weight and size

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
Switching DC Power Supply: Block Diagram

• High efficiency and small weight and size

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 Switching DC Power Supply: Multiple
Outputs

• In most applications, several dc voltages are

required, possibly electrically isolated from each other
Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 SMPS: Transformer Selection/Design

Transformers are required for galvanic isolation between input

and output voltages and for voltage and current scaling. It also
helps in optimizing the device voltage and current ratings.
The switches, diodes and other circuit elements on the high
voltage side of the transformer are subjected to higher voltages
but only lower currents.
Similarly the devices put on the low voltage side are subjected
to less voltage stress but higher current stress. The dc-to-dc
buck converter shown in Fig., which is used to get a low voltage
output from a high input dc voltage illustrates this point clearly.
The circuit in Fig. (a) uses a step down transformer with proper
turns ratio and has the advantages discussed above.

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching

by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-5
DC Power Supplies
 SMPS: Transformer Selection/Design

Switch and diode and the filter inductor in Fig. 25.1(b)

need to withstand both input side voltage and output side
current. Also, the switch in case (b) will be cons trained to
operate in a narrow range, which may cause lesser
accuracy in out put voltage control.

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching

by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 3
always differences:
subjected
(ii)
(i) to sinuso

SMPS: Transformer Selection/Design

Transformers used in switched mode power supply circuits
are significantly different from the power transformers that
are used in utility ac supply system. Following are the
important differences:
(i)The input and output voltages and currents of a SMPS
transformer are mostly non-sinusoidal, whereas the
transformers connected to utility ac supply are almost
always subjected to sinusoidal voltages and currents.
(ii) The currents and voltages of SMPS transformer are of
very high frequency where as utility type transformers are
subjected to low frequency supply voltages.
(iii) SMPS transformers generally handle much smaller
power than the utility transformer.
Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-7
DC Power Supplies
 SMPS: Transformer Selection/Design

The fundamental principles concerning emf generation etc. in SMPS-transformers and

power transformers are identical and hence, many concepts of conventional transformer
design have been borrowed.

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching

by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 SMPS: Transformer Selection/Design
Governing Equations for Utility Transformer

wheere kw is the window utilization factor and δ is the current density through the
cross-sectional area of the transformer windings. Window utilization factor, roughly
varies between 0.35 to 0.6 and is dependent on the insulation requirements of the
windings.
Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 SMPS: Transformer Selection/Design
Governing Equations for Utility Transformer

A typical figure for the current density through copper conductors of naturally
cooled transformers is 3X106 Amps per square meter. If the current density through
primary and secondary windings is taken identical, they occupy equal window-
space of the transformer. Some times the current densities through the two
windings may differ depending on their physical ability to dissipate heat. The VA
rating of a single phase transformer (= N Et I) can now be found from the above
equations

For the given operating frequency (f) the product ‘AcAw’, known as area product is
roughly proportional to the VA rating of the transformer as other parameters have
nearly fixed magnitudes.

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching

by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 Transformer Analysis

• Needed to discuss high-frequency isolated supplies

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 PWM to Regulate Output

• Basic principle is the same as discussed in Chapter 8

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 Flyback Converter

• Derived from buck-boost; very power at small power

(> 50 W ) power levels

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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 Flyback Converter

• Switch on and off states (assuming incomplete core

demagnetization)
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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 Flyback Converter

• Switching waveforms (assuming incomplete core

demagnetization)
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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 Other Flyback Converter Topologies

• Not commonly used

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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 Forward Converter

• Derived from Buck; idealized to assume that the

transformer is ideal (not possible in practice)
Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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DC Power Supplies
 Forward Converter
Forward converter is one of the popular switched mode power supply
(SMPS) circuit that is used for producing isolated and controlled dc
voltage from the unregulated dc input supply.
Basic comparison with Fly-back
The input dc supply is often derived after rectifying (and little filtering) of
the utility ac voltage. The forward converter, when compared with the fly-
back circuit, is generally more energy efficient and is used for
applications requiring little higher power output (in the range of 100 watts
to 200 watts). However the circuit topology,
. especially the output filtering
circuit is not as simple as in the fly-back converter.

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching

by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-18
DC Power Supplies
 Forward Converter
Assumptions:
•The transformer used in the forward converter is desired to be an ideal transformer
with no leakage fluxes, zero magnetizing current and no losses.
•The basic operation of the circuit is explained here assuming ideal circuit elements
and later the non-ideal characteristics of the devices are taken care of by suitable
modification in the circuit design.
•Due to the presence of finite magnetizing current in a practical transformer, a
tertiary winding needs to be introduced in the transformer and the circuit topology
changes slightly.
.
•ON state voltage drops of switches and diodes are neglected. Similarly, leakage
currents through the off state devices is assumed zero. The switching-on and
switching-off times of the switch and diodes are neglected.
•The transformer used in the circuit is assumed to be ideal requiring no magnetizing
current, having no leakage inductance and no losses.
•The filter circuit elements like, inductors and capacitors are assumed loss-less.
•For the simplified steady-state analysis of the circuit the switch duty ratio (δ), as
defined in the previous chapters is assumed constant.
•The input and output dc voltages are assumed to be constant and ripple-free.
Current through the filter inductor (L) is assumed to be continuous.

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 Forward Converter
Principle of Operation
•When switch ‘S’ is turned on, input dc gets applied to the primary winding
and simultaneously a scaled voltage appears across the transformer
secondary.
•Dotted sides of both the windings are now having positive polarity. Diode
‘D1’, connected in series with the secondary winding gets forward biased
and the scaled input voltage is applied to the low pass filter circuit
preceding the load.
•The primary winding current enters through its dotted end while the
secondary current comes out of the .dotted side and their magnitudes are
inversely proportional to their turns-ratio. Thus, as per the assumption of
an ideal transformer, the net magnetizing ampere-turns of the transformer
is zero and there is no energy stored in the transformer core.
•When switch ‘S’ is turned off, the primary as well as the secondary
winding currents are suddenly brought down to zero. Current through the
filter inductor and the load continues without any abrupt change.

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching

by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-20
DC Power Supplies
 Forward Converter
Principle of Operation
•Current through the filter inductor and the load continues without any
abrupt change. Diode ‘D2’ provides the freewheeling path for this current.
The required emf to maintain continuity in filter-inductor current and to
maintain the forward bias voltage across D2 comes from the filter inductor
‘L’ itself.
•During freewheeling the filter inductor current will be decaying as it flows
against the output voltage (Vop), but the presence of relatively large filter
capacitor ‘C’ still maintains the [Link] nearly constant.
•The ripple in the output voltage must be within the acceptable limits. The
supply switching frequency is generally kept sufficiently high such that the
next turn-on of the switch takes place before the filter inductor current
decays significantly. Needless to say, that the magnitudes of filter inductor
and capacitor are to be chosen appropriately.

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching

by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-21
DC Power Supplies
 Forward Converter
• Mode-1 of circuit starts after switch ‘S’ (as shown in Fig.23.1) is turned ON. This
connects the input voltage, Edc, to the primary winding. Both primary and
secondary windings start conducting simultaneously with the turning on of the
switch.
• The primary and secondary winding currents and voltages are related to their
turns-ratio (NP / NS), as in an ideal transformer. Fig.23.2 (a) shows, in bold lines,
the current carrying path of the circuit and Fig.23.2 (b) shows the functional
equivalent circuit of mode-1.
• As switch ‘S’ closes, diode D1 in the secondary circuit gets forward biased and
.
the input voltage, scaled by the transformer turns ratio, gets applied to the
secondary circuit. Diode D2 does not conduct during mode-1, as it remains
reverse biased.
The output circuit consisting of L-C filter
and the load gets a voltage equal to S dc
P N E N during mode-1. This voltage is
shown across points ‘P’ and ‘N’ in Fig.
23.2(b) and it is the maximum achievable
dc voltage across the load, corresponding
to δ = 1. Mode-1 can be called as
powering mode during which input power
is transferred to the load.

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 Forward Converter
Mode-2 of Circuit Operation
•As soon as switch ‘S’ is turned off, the primary and the secondary winding currents
of the transformer fall to zero. However, the secondary side filter inductor maintains
a continuous current through the freewheeling diode ‘D2’. Diode ‘D1’ remains off
during this mode and isolates the output section of the circuit from the transformer
and the input.

Mode-2, to be called as
. freewheeling mode, starts with
turning off of the switch ‘S’.

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 Forward Converter
• Points ‘P’ and ‘N’ of the equivalent circuit are effectively shorted due to
conduction of diode ‘D2’. The inductor current continues to flow through the
parallel combination of the load and the output capacitor. During mode-2, there is
no power flow from source to load but still the load voltage is maintained nearly
constant by the large output capacitor ‘C’. During mode-2, the stored energy of
the filter inductor and capacitor will be slowly dissipating in the load and hence
during this mode the magnitudes of inductor current and the capacitor voltage will
be falling slightly.
• In order to keep the load voltage magnitude within required tolerance band, the
converter-switch ‘S’ is turned on again to end the freewheeling mode and start
the next powering mode (mode-1). .
• Under steady state, loss in inductor current and capacitor voltage in mode-2 is
exactly made up in mode-1. It may not be difficult to see that to maintain load
voltage within the desired tolerance band the filter inductor and capacitor
magnitudes should be sufficiently large.
• However, in order to keep the filter cost and its physical size small these
elements should not be unnecessarily too large. Also, for faster dynamic
control over the output voltage the filter elements should not be too large.
[It may be pointed out here that the filter inductor, capacitor, transformer and the
heat sinks for the switching devices together account for nearly 90% of the power
supply weight and volume.]

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 Forward Converter

One important factor that directly influences the size of the filter circuit elements and
the transformer is the converter’s switching frequency.
High frequency operation of switch ‘S’ will help in keeping the filter and transformer
size small. The switching frequency of a typical forward converter may thus be in the
range of 100 kHz or more. The higher end limit on the switching frequency comes
mainly due to the finite switching time and finite switching losses of a practical
.
switch. Switch limitations have been ignored in the simplified analysis presented
here. As mentioned earlier, the switch and the diodes have been assumed to be
ideal, with no losses and zero switching time. Control over switch duty ratio, which is
the ratio of ON time to (ON + OFF) time, provides the control over the output voltage
‘VO’.

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 Forward Converter
Relation Between Input and Output Voltage
The equivalent circuits of mode-1 and mode-2 can be used to derive a steady state
relation between the input voltage, switch duty ratio (δ) and the output voltage. With
the assumption of constant input and output voltage, the instantaneous value of
inductor voltage (eL) during mode-1 can be written as:

Where t = 0 is the time instant when mode-1 of any steady state switching cycle
starts, T is the switching time period that. may be assumed to be constant and δ is
the duty ratio of the switch. It can be seen that δT is the time duration of mode-1 and
(1-δ) T is the time duration of mode-2. The inductor voltage during mode-2 may
similarly be written as:

Now since voltage across an inductor, averaged over a steady state cycle
time, must always be zero, one gets:

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 Forward Converter

• It is to be noted that the output voltage relation given by Eqn. (23.3) is

valid only under the assumption of continuous inductor current.
• Under discontinuous inductor current the relation between output voltage
and switch duty ratio becomes non-linear and is load dependent.
• For better control over output voltage discontinuous inductor current
mode is generally avoided. With prior knowledge of the load-range and
for the desired switching frequency the filter inductor may be suitably
chosen to keep the inductor current. continuous and preferably with less
ripple.

Practical Topology of A Forward Converter Circuit

• Non-idealities of the circuit elements shall be taken into consideration.
• Most common consequence of non-ideal nature of circuit elements is
increase in looses and hence reduction in efficiency of the power supply.
A practical way to get around the consequence of circuit losses is to
over-design the power supply.

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 Forward Converter
• The design should aim to achieve an output power of Po/ η , where ‘ Po ’
is the required output power and ‘η ’ is the efficiency of the converter. As
a first order approximation, a typical efficiency figure of around 80% may
be assumed for the forward converter.
• Once the efficiency figure has been considered the circuit may still be
designed based on the simplified analysis presented here, which
neglects many of the non-idealities.

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 Forward Converter
• The difference of the mmfs is responsible for maintaining the
magnetizing flux in the core. When primary winding current is
interrupted by switching off ‘S’, the dotted ends of the windings develop
negative potential to oppose the interruption of current (in accordance
with Lenz’s law). Negative potential of the dotted end of secondary
winding makes diode ‘D1’ reverse biased and hence it also stops
conducting. This results in simultaneous opening of both primary and
secondary windings of the transformer. In case the basic circuit of Fig.
23.1 is used along with a practical transformer, turning off of switch ‘S’
will result in sudden demagnetization . of the core from its previously
magnetized state.
• A practical circuit cannot support sudden change in flux. Any attempt to
change flux suddenly results in generation of infinitely large magnitude
of voltage (in accordance with Lenz’s law). Such a large voltage in the
circuit will have a destructive effect and that should be avoided.
• Thus, after switch ‘S’ is turned off, there must exist a convenient path
for the trapped energy in the primary due to magnetizing current. One
solution could be a snubber circuit across the primary winding.
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 Forward Converter
• The difference of the mmfs is responsible for maintaining the
magnetizing flux in the core. When primary winding current is
interrupted by switching off ‘S’, the dotted ends of the windings develop
negative potential to oppose the interruption of current (in accordance
with Lenz’s law). Negative potential of the dotted end of secondary
winding makes diode ‘D1’ reverse biased and hence it also stops
conducting. This results in simultaneous opening of both primary and
secondary windings of the transformer. In case the basic circuit of Fig.
23.1 is used along with a practical transformer, turning off of switch ‘S’
will result in sudden demagnetization . of the core from its previously
magnetized state.
• A practical circuit cannot support sudden change in flux. Any attempt to
change flux suddenly results in generation of infinitely large magnitude
of voltage (in accordance with Lenz’s law). Such a large voltage in the
circuit will have a destructive effect and that should be avoided.
• Thus, after switch ‘S’ is turned off, there must exist a convenient
path for the trapped energy in the primary due to magnetizing
current. One solution could be a snubber circuit across the
primary winding. 10-30
 Forward Converter
• A more preferred solution is to recover this energy. For this reason the practical forward
converter uses an extra tertiary winding with a series diode, as shown in Fig. 23.4.
• When both switch ‘S’ and ‘D1’ turn-off together, as discussed above, the magnetization
energy will cause a current flow through the closely coupled tertiary winding and the diode
‘D3’. The dot markings on the windings are to be observed. Current entering the dot
through any of the magnetically coupled windings will produce magnetic flux in the same
sense. As soon as switch ‘S’ is turned off, the dotted end voltages of the windings will
become negative in accordance with Lenz’s law. The sudden rise in magnitude of
negative potential across the windings is checked only by the conduction of current
through the tertiary winding. As discussed earlier unless the continuity in transformer flux
is maintained the voltages in the windings will theoretically reach infinite value. Thus
turning off of switch ‘S’ and turn-on of diode ‘D3’ need to be simultaneous. Similarly fall in
magnetizing current through primary winding. must be coupled with simultaneous rise of
magnetization current through the tertiary winding. In order that the entire flux linking the
primary winding gets transferred to the tertiary, the magnetic coupling between these two
windings must be very good. For this the primary and tertiary winding turns are wound
together, known as bifilar windings. The wires used for bifilar windings of the primary and
the tertiary need to withstand large electrical voltage stress and are costlier than ordinary
transformer wires.

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Forward Converter

10-32
 Forward Converter:
in Practice

• Switching waveforms (assuming

incomplete core demagnetization)

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching

by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-33
DC Power Supplies
Forward Converter: Other Possible Topologies

• Two-switch Forward converter is very commonly used

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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-34
DC Power Supplies
 Push-Pull Inverter

• Leakage inductances become a problem

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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-35
DC Power Supplies
 Half-Bridge Converter

• Derived from Buck

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-36
DC Power Supplies
 Full-Bridge Converter

• Used at higher power levels (> 0.5 kW )

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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-37
DC Power Supplies
 Current-Source Converter

• More rugged (no shoot-through) but both switches

must not be open simultaneously
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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-38
DC Power Supplies
 Ferrite Core Material

• Several materials to choose from based on applications

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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-39
DC Power Supplies
 Core Utilization in Various Converter
Topologies

• At high switching frequencies, core losses limit

excursion of flux density
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10-40
DC Power Supplies
 Control to Regulate Voltage Output

• Linearized representation of the feedback control

system
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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-41
DC Power Supplies
 Forward Converter: An Example

• The switch and the diode are assumed to be ideal

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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-42
DC Power Supplies
Forward Converter:Transfer Function Plots

• Example
considered earlier

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10-43
DC Power Supplies
Flyback Converter:Transfer Function Plots

• An example

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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-44
DC Power Supplies
 Linearizing the PWM Block

• The transfer function is essentially a constant with

zero phase shift
Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-45
DC Power Supplies
 Gain of the PWM IC

• It is slope of the characteristic

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching

by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-46
DC Power Supplies
Typical Gain and Phase Plots of the Open-
Loop Transfer Function

• Definitions of the crossover frequency, phase and

gain margins
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10-47
DC Power Supplies
A General Amplifier for Error Compensation

• Can be implemented using a single op-amp

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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-48
DC Power Supplies
 Type-2 Error Amplifier

• Shows phase boost at the crossover frequency

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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-49
DC Power Supplies
 Voltage Feed-Forward

• Makes converter immune from input voltage

variations
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10-50
DC Power Supplies
 Voltage versus Current Mode Control

• Regulating the output voltage is the objective in both

modes of control
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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-51
DC Power Supplies
 Various Types of Current Mode Control

• Constant frequency, peak-

current mode control is used
most frequently

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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-52
DC Power Supplies
 Peak Current Mode Control

• Slope compensation is needed

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10-53
DC Power Supplies
 A Typical PWM Control IC

• Many safety control

functions are built in

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by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-54
DC Power Supplies
 Current Limiting

• Two options are shown

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10-55
DC Power Supplies
 Implementing
Electrical
Isolation in the
Feedback Loop

• Two ways are shown

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching

by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-56
DC Power Supplies
 Implementing Electrical Isolation in the
Feedback Loop

• A dedicated IC for this application is available

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-57
DC Power Supplies
 Input Filter

• Needed to comply with the EMI and harmonic limits

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching

by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-58
DC Power Supplies
 ESR of the Output Capacitor

• ESR often dictates the peak-peak voltage ripple

Copyright © 2003 Chapter 10 Switching

by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10-59
DC Power Supplies