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Modular Arithmetic in Cryptography

This document discusses modular arithmetic and its applications in public key cryptography. It defines modular arithmetic and provides examples. It then discusses various algebraic structures used in cryptography like groups, rings, and fields. It focuses on finite fields of the form GF(2n) and how mathematical problems over these finite fields can be used for public key cryptography. It describes how elements in GF(2n) can be represented by polynomials over binary coefficients and how operations like addition, multiplication and modulo reduction are performed computationally. Examples are provided to illustrate polynomial arithmetic in GF(2n). The document also gives a brief overview of the RSA algorithm for encryption and decryption.

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Daniel Kekema
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14 views20 pages

Modular Arithmetic in Cryptography

This document discusses modular arithmetic and its applications in public key cryptography. It defines modular arithmetic and provides examples. It then discusses various algebraic structures used in cryptography like groups, rings, and fields. It focuses on finite fields of the form GF(2n) and how mathematical problems over these finite fields can be used for public key cryptography. It describes how elements in GF(2n) can be represented by polynomials over binary coefficients and how operations like addition, multiplication and modulo reduction are performed computationally. Examples are provided to illustrate polynomial arithmetic in GF(2n). The document also gives a brief overview of the RSA algorithm for encryption and decryption.

Uploaded by

Daniel Kekema
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

-Modular Arithmetic(Group, Rings, fields)

-Finite fields of the form GF(2n)


-Mathematical problems for public key cryptography)

PRESENTED BY : ASAN BAKER


MODULAR ARITHMETIC

DEFINITION :
 Let a, b and n are integers and n > 0.
 We write a ≡ b mod n if and only if n divides a − b.
 n is called the modulus.
 b is called the remainder.
For Example:
 29 ≡ 15 mod 7 because 7|(29 − 15)
 12 ≡ 3 mod 9 ; 3 is a valid remainder since 9 divides 12 − 3
 12 ≡ 21 mod 9 ; 21 is a valid remainder since 9 divides 12 − 21
 12 ≡ −6 mod 9 ; −6 is a valid remainder since 9 divides −6 − 3
Cryptography requires sets of integers and specific
operations that are defined for those sets. The
combination of the set and the operations that are
applied to the elements of the set is called an
algebraic structure.
 Groups,
 Rings
 fields.
Groups

a set of elements or “numbers” with a binary


operator “ •”. obeys:
 closure: a G, b G a• b G
 associative law: (a.b).c = a.(b.c)
 has identity e: e.a = a.e = a
 has inverses a-1: a.a-1 = e
if commutative a.b = b.a
 then forms an abelian group
Cyclic groups

Claim: let G be a group and a be an element of order n.


The set
{a}={1, a,…,an-1} is a sub-group of G.
a is called the generator of {a}.
If G is generated by a, then G is called cyclic, and a is
called a primitive element of G.
Rings

 a set of “numbers”
 with two operations (addition and multiplication) which form:
an abelian group with addition operation and multiplication:

 has closure
 is associative
 distributive over addition: a(b+c) = ab + ac

 if multiplication operation is commutative, it forms a


commutative ring
 if multiplication operation has an identity and no zero
divisors, it forms an integral domain
Field

 a set of numbers
 with two operations which form:
 abelian group for addition
 abelian group for multiplication (ignoring 0)
 Ring
 A field is a commutative ring with identity where each non-
zero element has a multiplicative inverse
 a0F,  a-1F, a·a-1=1

 have hierarchy with more axioms/laws


 group -> ring -> field
Group, Ring, Field
Finite (Galois) Fields

finite fields play a key role in cryptography


can show number of elements in a finite field must
be a power of a prime pn known as Galois fields
denoted GF(pn)
in particular often use the fields:
 GF(p)
 GF(2n)
Modular Polynomial Arithmetic

 can compute in field GF(2n)


 polynomials with coefficients modulo 2
 whose degree is less than n
 hence must reduce modulo an irreducible poly of
degree n (for multiplication only)
 form a finite field can always find an inverse
 can extend Euclid’s Inverse algorithm to find
GF(2n)

Finite fields of order 2n are called binary fields or


characteristic-two finite fields. They are of special
interest because they are particularly efficient for
implementation in hardware, or on a binary
computer.
The elements of GF(2n) are binary polynomials, i.e.
polynomials whose coefficients are either 0 or 1.
There are 2n such polynomials in the field and the
degree of each polynomial is no more than n-1.
Therefore the elements can be represented as m-bit
strings.
Example GF(23)
Computational Considerations

since coefficients are 0 or 1, can represent any such


polynomial as a bit string
 addition becomes XOR of these bit strings
multiplication is shift and XOR
modulo reduction done by repeatedly substituting
highest power with remainder of irreducible poly
(also shift and XOR)
eg. irreducible poly = x3 + x + 1 means x3 = x + 1 in
the polynomial field
Computational Example

 in GF(23) have (x2+1) is 1012 & (x2+x+1) is 1112


 so addition is
 (x2+1) + (x2+x+1) = x

101 XOR 111 = 0102
 and multiplication is
 (x+1).(x2+1) = x.(x2+1) + 1.(x2+1)
= x3+x+x2+1 = x3+x2+x+1

011.101 = (101)<<1 XOR (101)<<0 = 1010 XOR 101 = 1111 2
 in GF(23) have (x2+1) is 1012 & (x2+x+1) is 1112
 polynomial modulo reduction (get q(x) & r(x)) is
 (x3+x2+x+1 ) mod (x3+x+1) = 1.(x3+x+1) + (x2) = x2

1111 mod 1011 = 1111 XOR 1011 = 01002
RSA Key generation
RSA message encryption
RSA Message decrytion
Thanks

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