Chapter 3: Types and Techniques of Project Scheduling

Relationships between Activities and Constraints

Project scheduling requires us to follow some carefully

laid-out steps, in order, for the schedule to take shape. “An output
of a schedule model that presents linked
activities with planned dates, durations, milestones, and
resources.”

Project planning, as it relates to the scheduling process, has been

defined by the PMBoK as:
The identification of the project objectives and the ordered
activity necessary to complete the project including the
identification of resource types and quantities required to
carry out each activity or task.
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
• After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Apply lag relationships to project activities.
2. Construct and comprehend Gantt charts.
3. Recognize alternative means to accelerate projects, including
their benefits and drawbacks.
4. Understand the trade-offs required in the decision to crash
project activities.
5. Develop activity networks using Activity-on-Arrow techniques.
6. Understand the differences in AON and AOA and recognize the
advantages and disadvantages of each technique.
 Lags in Precedence Relationships

The logical relationship between the start and finish of one

activity and the start and finish of another activity.

Four logical relationships between tasks:

1. Finish to Start
2. Finish to Finish
3. Start to Start
4. Start to Finish
 Gantt Charts
 Establish a time-phased
network
 Can be used as a tracking tool
Benefits of Gantt charts
1. Easy to comprehend
2. Identify the schedule baseline
network
3. Allow for updating and control
4. Identify resource needs
5. Easy to create
Gantt Chart was invented by
Henry Gantt in 1910
 Crashing
The process of accelerating a project

Primary methods for crashing:

[Link] existing resources’ productivity
[Link] work methods
[Link] quality and/or reduce project scope
[Link] fast-tracking
[Link] overtime
[Link] the quantity of resources
 Crash process
• Determine activity fixed and variable costs
• The crash point is the fully expedited activity
• Optimize time-cost tradeoffs
• Shorten activities on the critical path
• Cease crashing when:
• the target completion time is reached
• the crashing cost exceeds the penalty cost
Time/cost trade-offs for crashing activities
(figure 10.14)

Source: Pinto (2016)

Relationship between cost and days saved
in crashed project
(figure 10.16)

Source: Pinto (2016)

 Activity on Arrow Networks

Activities represented by arrows

Widely used in construction
Event nodes easy to flag
Forward and backward pass logic similar to AON
 Two activities may not begin and end at common nodes
Dummy activities may be required
Notation for Activity-on-Arrow (AOA)
Networks
(figure 10.18)
Sample Network Diagram Using AOA
Approach
(
Representing Activities with Two or More Immediate
Successors
Representing Activities with Two or More Immediate
Successors Using Dummy Activities (Better)
 Controversies in the Use of
Networks
1. Networks can be too complex.
2. Poor network construction creates problems.
3. Networks may be used inappropriately.
4. Networks pose special dangers because contractors may create
their own networks.
 Schedule
Management
 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

•A deliverable oriented hierarchical decomposition of the
work to be executed by the project team to accomplish the
team mission and create the required deliverables. The WBS
defines the project scope.

Team Mission

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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Deliverable
•Any unique and verifiable product or result that must be
produced to complete a project. Usually the lowest level of
the WBS.

Team Mission

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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Scheduled Activity (task)

•A component of work performed to create a deliverable.

Team Mission
(Scope)
WBS
Activity List
(Schedule)

Task 1 Task 1 Task 1 Task 1 Task 1 Task 1

Task 2 Task 2 Task 2 Task 2 Task 2 Task 2
(Etc.) (Etc.) (Etc.) (Etc.) (Etc.) (Etc.)
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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Schedule Milestone
•A significant event in the project schedule, such as an event
restraining future work or marking the completion of a major
deliverable. A “measuring point”. Milestones have “0” (zero)
duration and no resource assignments.

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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Logical Relationships
“Finish to Start” (most common)

Finish Start

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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Logical Relationships
“Finish to Finish”

Finish Finish

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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Logical Relationships
“Start to Start”

Start Start

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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Logical Relationships
“Start to Finish” (very rare, not available in
WSDOT project management software)

Finish Start

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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Precedence (Network) Diagram

A schedule diagramming technique in which

schedule activities are represented by
nodes and arrows shown the logical
relationship between activities

A D

F
B
E
C G
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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Critical Path
• Longest duration path through the
project network
• Activities on Critical Path are called
“Critical Activities”
• Critical activities have no float or
slack

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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Critical Path
• A project can have more than one
critical path
• Activities not on the Critical Path are
called “Non Critical Activities”
• To shorten the project duration, a
scheduler must modify the critical
path activities or dependencies

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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Float (Slack)

“Total Float” – The amount of time a

scheduled activity has that is can be delayed
or extended without affecting the project end
date or violating a schedule constraint.

Activity Total
Duration Float
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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Float (Slack)

“Free Float” – The amount of time a

scheduled activity has that is can be delayed
or extended without affecting the start of the
next scheduled activity in the project network.

Activity Free
Duration Float
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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Float (Slack)

“Negative Float” – The amount of time that by

which a critical activity (or milestone) misses
a required date.

Negative Activity
Float Duration
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 Schedule Terminology & Definitions

Critical Path Method (CPM)

A schedule network analysis technique used

to determine the amount of schedule
flexibility (float) on various network paths and
to determine the minimum project duration.
Forward Pass Backward Pass

•Late Start •Early Start

•Late Finish A D •Early Finish

F
B
E
28 C G
 Schedule Tracking

Schedule Tracking

Actual Start – This is the date that work on

the scheduled activity actually started. In
project management software applications,
this field is called “Actual Start”

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 Schedule Tracking

Schedule Tracking

Actual Finish – This is the date that the work

on the scheduled activity actually finished. In
project management software applications,
this field is called “Actual Finish”

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 Schedule Tracking

Schedule Tracking

% Complete – This is a function of time. The

formula for this value is

Elapsed Duration / Total Duration

With current project management software

applications, this field must be greater than
“0” before a Base Cost % Complete can be
entered.
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 Schedule Tracking

Schedule Tracking

Base Cost % Complete – This is the percent

of the deliverable that has been completed.
There are several ways to estimate this based
on the deliverable.

A project performance baseline must be

defined in the project management program
before this value can be entered.

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 Schedule Tracking

Base Cost % Complete

Units Produced Method – This is the ratio of

units produced to the total specified at
completion. Units must be nearly identical.

Example:
Drilling 10 holes, 4 complete – 40% complete

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 Schedule Recovery / Schedule Compression

Schedule compression
A technique used to shorten a project
duration without reducing the project scope.
There are two methods of schedule
compression:
• Schedule Crashing
• Schedule fast tracking

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 Schedule Recovery / Schedule Compression

Schedule crashing
A compression technique in which scheduled
activity durations are modified; working day
definitions are modified; or resource
requirements are modified.
Typically will increase costs.
Activities must be “resource dependant”

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 Schedule Recovery / Schedule Compression

Schedule fast tracking

A compression technique in which activities
that would be normally done in sequence are
performed in parallel.
Fast tracking does not change resource
requirements, but modifies the logical
relationships.
Typically, fast tracking will increase project
risk.
Cannot fast track “hard logic”
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 Schedule Recovery / Schedule Compression

What-if Scenario Analysis

Asking “what-if” for each situation and how it
affects the project model.
Outcomes can evaluate the effects to project
objectives
Also used for risk planning.

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 Schedule Management

Module 3 exercise
Task D
10 days
Task A Task G
20 days 14 days
Task E
20 days
S Task B
Task H F
16 days
Task F 10 days
7 days
Task C
Task J
25 days
15 days
St-A-D-G-Fin: 44 days
St-A-E-H-Fin: 50 days Critical Path
St-B-E-H-Fin: 46 days
St-C-F-H-Fin: 42 days
33 St-C-J-Fin: 40 days
 Individual Work Styles and Cultural
Differences Cause Schedule Conflicts
One dimension of the Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator
focuses on peoples’ attitudes toward structure and
deadline
Judgment type people prefer to follow schedules,
meet deadlines and have closure. Perception types
prefer to keep things open and flexible; deadlines are
a signal to start rather than to complete a project
Different cultures and even entire countries have
different attitudes about schedules

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Project Time Management
 Project Time Management Processes
Activity definition: Activity
sequencing:
Activity resource estimating:
Activity duration estimating:
Schedule development:
Schedule control:

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Project Time Management
 Activity Definition
Project schedules grow out of the basic documents
that initiate a project
Project charter includes start and end dates and budget
information
Scope statement and WBS help define what will be done

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Project Time Management
 Activity Definition
Dasar dari pembuatan penjadwalan project diturunkan
dari empat proses manajemen waktu:
Activity definition – further defining the scope
Activity sequencing – further defining the time
Activity resource, and
activity duration (further defining the time and cost)

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Project Time Management
 Activity Lists and Attributes
An activity list is a tabulation of activities to be included on a project
schedule that includes:
The activity name
An activity identifier or number
A brief description of the activity
Activity attributes provide more information such as predecessors,
successors, logical relationships, leads and lags, resource requirements,
constraints, imposed dates, and assumptions related to the activity

45
Project Time Management
 Network Diagrams
Network diagrams are the preferred technique for showing activity
sequencing
A network diagram is a schematic display of the logical relationships
among, or sequencing of, project activities
Two main formats are the arrow and precedence diagramming methods

46
Project Time Management
 Arrow Diagramming Method (ADM)
Also called activity-on-arrow (AOA) network diagrams
Activities are represented by arrows
Nodes or circles are the starting and ending points of activities
Can only show finish-to-start dependencies
Can omit activities that have no dependencies

47
Project Time Management
 Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM)
More popular than ADM method and used by project
management software
Activities are represented by boxes
Arrows show relationships between activities
Better at showing different types of dependencies

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Project Time Management
 SMART Criteria
Milestones should be:
Specific
Measurable
Assignable
Realistic
Time-framed

49
Project Time Management
 Project Crashing
 Projects will sometimes have deadlines that are impossible to meet using normal
procedures
 By using exceptional methods it may be possible to finish the project in less time than
normally required
 However, this usually increases the cost of the project
 Reducing a project’s completion time is called crashing
 Project Crashing
 Crashing a project starts with using the normal time to create
the critical path
 The normal cost is the cost for completing the activity using
normal procedures
 If the project will not meet the required deadline, extraordinary
measures must be taken
 The crash time is the shortest possible activity time and will
require additional resources
 The crash cost is the price of completing the activity in the
earlier-than-normal time
 Four Steps to Project Crashing
1. Find the normal critical path and identify the critical activities
2. Compute the crash cost per week (or other time period) for all
activities in the network using the formula

Crash cost – Normal cost

Crash cost/Time period =
Normal time – Crash time
 Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT)
PERT is a network analysis technique used to
estimate project duration when there is a high degree
of uncertainty about the individual activity duration
estimates
PERT uses probabilistic time estimates
Duration estimates based on using optimistic, most
likely, and pessimistic estimates of activity durations, or a
three-point estimate
PERT attempts to address the risk associated with
duration estimates by developing schedules that are
more realistic
It involves more work than CPM since it requires several
duration estimates

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Project Time Management
 Schedule Control
 Perform reality checks on schedules
Allow for contingencies
Don’t plan for everyone to work at 100%
capacity all the time
Hold progress meetings with stakeholders
and be clear and honest in communicating
schedule issues

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Project Time Management
 Reality Checks on Scheduling
First review the draft schedule or estimated completion date in the project
charter
Prepare a more detailed schedule with the project team
Make sure the schedule is realistic and followed
Alert top management well in advance if there are schedule problems
Verify schedule progress – just because a team member says a task was
completed on time doesn’t always mean that it was

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Project Time Management
 Working with People Issues
Strong leadership helps projects succeed more than
good PERT charts
Project managers should use:
Empowerment
Incentives
Discipline
Negotiation

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Project Time Management
 Using Software to Assist
in Time Management
Software for facilitating communications helps people
exchange schedule-related information
Decision support models help analyze trade-offs that
can be made
Project management software can help in various
time management areas

57
Project Time Management
 Project Scheduling

• Project definition:

A complex and large scale one-of-a-kind product or

service, made up by a number of component
activities (jobs), that entails a considerable
financial effort and must be time-phased, i.e.
scheduled, according to specified precedence and
resource requirements (Hax and Candea, 1984)

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 Project properties
• Project goals: quality, time, costs, customer
satisfaction
• Network of activities/jobs
• Limited resource capacity
• Project life-cycle:
– Order acceptance
– Engineering and process planning
– Material and resource scheduling
– Project execution
– Evaluation & service 59
 Project examples

• Construction
• Production
• Management
• Research
• Maintenance
• Installation, implementation

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