DGI50143

PROCESS
INSTRUMENTATIO
N & CONTROL
Department of Petro chemic al
Engineering
Rusmay Bin Abdullah
Hj. M ustafa Kamal Bin
Surif M ohd Azhar Bin
Ibrahim
 Learning Outcomes
PROGRAMME
LEARNING
COURSE LEARNING TEACHIN ASSESMEN
OUTCOMES (PLO)
OUTCOMES G T
(CLO) METHODS METHODS
PLO2 PLO4 PLO10

Determine the fundamental of √

process control Quiz, Test, End of
Interactiv
CLO 1 system, measurement and working Chapter and
C4 e
principle of plant equipment used Final Exam
Lectures
in the process plant.
√
Perform the measurement and
Practical
CLO2 basic process control system Demonstration
P4 Test, Practical
applied in process plant
Task (P)

√
Relate the relationship between
safety interlock system, process Practical
CLO3 Demonstration
controller and plant equipment used A4 Task (A)
on the process plant
 TOPIC
S
• TOPIC 1:
INTRODUCTION TO FUNDAMENTAL OF INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
SYSTEM
• TOPIC 2:
M EASUREM ENT OF PROC ESS VARIABLES
• TOPIC 3:
PLANT EQUIPM ENT
• TOPIC 4:
INDUSTRIAL PROC ESS C ONTROL SYSTEM
• TOPIC 5:
PRAC TIC A
L
 ASSESSMENT
METHODS
• Test (1) - 10%
• Quiz (2) [ T1,T2,T3]

• End of Chapter (1) - 5% [T1,T3]

• Prac tic al Task (P) - 5% [T2,T4]

(4) - 20%
• Prac tic al Task (A) [ T1,T2,T3, T4]
(1) - 5% [ T1,T2,T3,
• Practical Test (1) T4]
- 5%
 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO
FUNDAMENTAL OF
INSTRUMENTATION AND CO NTROL
SYSTEM
Upon completion of this topic, students should
be able to:
• Explain the c ontrol system
• Distinguish the term between process
instrumentation and sensor.
 Define the Control
System
• A system which consists of numbers of components
connected together to produce a desired response
for a given input.
• The following figure shows the simple block diagram
of
a c ontrol system.
 Examples of Control
Systems
• Home heating • Robotics
• Automatic washing • CNC Mac hining Centers
mac hine • Climate Control
• Refrigerator
• Engine Control
• Mic rowave oven
• Speed & Ac c eleration
• Toaster Control
• Automation
 Basic
•Definitions
Plant: a physic al objec t, system or process that is to
be
controlled.

• Process : is an operation to be c ontrolled.

Examples:
– c hemic al process ,
– ec onomic process
– biologic al process.
Basic
Definitions
• Input: an effect (generated outside the plant) that causes
the plant to behave in a c ertain way.

• Output (controlled variable): the quantity or condition that is

of interest and thus is c ontrolled.
Basic
Definitions
• Reference (command) input: a signal supplied to the control
system which represents the desired value (or variation) of the
controlled output.
• Disturbance input: is an unwanted input that tends
to
adversely affect the value of the output of a system.
• Controller: a device (or human or human being) which
adjusts the control signals according to a set of
predetermined rules.
• Control signal is the output of the controller that will be used
to bring the output of the system as close to the desired
value as possible.
Classification
Control Systems can be classified into two basic
types :
1. Open loop c ontrol systems
2. Closed loop or Feedbac k c ontrol systems.
Open Loop Control
Systems
o Control systems in which the output has no effect on the
control ac tion are c alled Open Loop c ontrol systems.
o In an open loop control system, the output is neither
measured
nor feed bac k for c omparison with the referenc e input.
Examples 1: Room Temperature
Control
• Hot water is used to keep a room at a specified temperature.
– It is circulated through a radiator and heat flows into the
room.
– Heat will flow out
through the walls.
– Room temperature is
set by adjusting the
flow rate of hot water
through the radiator.
Examples 2: Automatic Washing
Machine
The operator manually sets the operating time of the
machine. The ma c hine stops operating a fter the set time,
even the desire cleanliness of clothes are not obtained. This
happens because the machine has no feedback system
which signals the control a c tion of the system for desired
output.
The open loop
system is simple,
require less
maintenance. Also, it
is fast in operation
a nd
very
economical. But the
Closed Loop Or Feedback Control
Systems
• Closed Loop or Feedback control system, the controlled output
is measured and compared with the reference input.
• The difference between the two, called error, is fed into
the
controller which produces a control signal to reduce this error.
• Thus, a closed loop (feedback) control system contains
additional c ontains additional elements.
– Sensors or transduc ers
– Comparator (error detec tor),
– Actuator
Sensors or
Transducers
The controlled output is measured by sensors
“devices that measure a variable and convert it into a signal –
usually electrical – which can be read by observer or by an
instrument”
so that it can be fed back and compared with the desired input.
Comparator (Error
Detec tor)
The differenc e between the
- desired (referenc e) input and
- the controlled output
is measured by a comparator (error
detector) and is fed into the
controller which produces a control
signal to reduc e this error
Actuator
The output of the controller is usually amplified to a sufficiently
high- power level to drive an actuator, which is usually a power
device such electric motor, hydraulic motor etc., to change the
controlled output.
The actuator is usually combined with the plant in block
diagrams.
Examples 3: Room Temperature
Control
Examples 4: Air
Conditioner
The air conditioner regulates the temperature by comparing it
with the surrounding temperature. The comparison of
temperature is done with the help of the thermostat. When the
AC provides the error signal which is the difference between the
surrounding temperature and room temperature the thermostats
turn on or off the compressor.
Elements In A Control
Loop
a. Process/Working element
 Process is a sequence of events designed to control the flow
of materials through a number of steps in a plant to
produce a final utilitarian produc t or material.
 The process can be a simple process with few steps, or
a
complex sequence of events with a large number of
interrelated variables.
 The examples shown are single steps that may occur in
a
process.
b. Measurement
 Measurement is the determination of the physical amplitude of
a parameter of a material; the measurement value must be
c onsistent and repeatable.
 Examples include converting temperature, pressure, force, or
flow into an electrical signal, measurable motion, or a gauge
reading.
c . Error detec tion
 Error Detection is the determination of the difference between
the amplitude of the measured variable and a desired set
reference point.
 Any difference between the two is an error signal, which is
amplified and conditioned to drive a control element.
 The controller sometimes performs the detection, while the
reference point is normally stored in the memory of the
controller.
 In Figure below, the human looked
at the difference between the
actual level, h, and the setpoint
level, H, and deduc ed an error.
 This error has both a magnitude and
polarity.
d. Controller
 Controller is a microprocessor-based system that can
determine the next step to be taken in a sequential process,
or evaluate the error signal in continuous process control to
determine what ac tion is to be taken.
 The controllers are normally referred to as programmable logic
c ontrollers (PLC).
 The controller can monitor several input signals that are
sometimes interrelated, and can drive several control
elements simultaneously.
e. Control element
 Control Element is the device that controls the
incoming
material to the process (e.g., valve).
 The element is typically a flow control element, and can
have an On/Off characteristic or can provide liner control
with drive.
 The control element is used to adjust the input to the process,
bringing the output variable to the value of the set point.
 Instrument
Parameters
• Range The range of an instrument is the minimum and
maximum values of the measured variable that the
instrument is c apable of measuring.
• Span The span of an instrument is the arithmetic difference
between the minimum and maximum range values, used to
desc ribe both the input and the output.
Example:
A thermometer can measure temperature between -20 ºC
and
90 ºC.
Solution:
The range of the instrument is from -20 ºC to 90 ºC.
The span of the instrument is 90 – (-20) = 110 ºC.
• Error The error is most important quantity in control system. It
is
the difference between the actual and the measured value.
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑒
=± × 100%
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

• Accuracy of an instrument or device is the error or

the
difference between the indicated value and the actual value.
• Accuracy is determined by comparing an indicated reading
to that of a known standard.
• Standards can be calibrated devices, and may be obtained
from the National Institute of Standards and Tec hnology
(NIST).
• Accuracy is usually expressed as the inaccuracy and
can
appear in several forms:
1. Measured variable; the accuracy is ± 2°C in
some
temperature measurement. Thus, there would
be an
uncertainty of ± 2°C in any value of temperature
measured.

2. Perc entage of the instrument full-scale (FS) reading.

Thus, an
accuracy of ± 0.5 % FS in a 5-V full-scale range meter
would
mean the inaccuracy or uncertainty in any measurement
is
± 0.025 % V.

3. Percentage of instrument span—that is, percentage

of the
 Example:
A pressure sensor has a span of 25 to 150 psi. Specify the error
when measuring 103 psi, if the accuracy of the gauge is (a) ±
1.5% of span, (b) ± 2% FSD, and (c) ± 1.3% of reading. (Note:
FSD – Full Scale deflec tion)

Solution:
1.5
1. 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ± 𝑃𝑒 × 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 = ± 100 × 150 − 25 = ± 1.88 𝑝𝑠𝑖

2
2. 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ± 𝑃𝑒 × 𝐹𝑆𝐷 = ± 100 × 150 = ± 3 𝑝𝑠𝑖

1.3
3. 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ± 𝑃𝑒 × 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ± 100 × 103 = ± 1.34 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Example:
A temperature sensor has a span of 20°C to 250°C. A
measurement results in a value of 55°C for the temperature.
Specify the error if the accuracy is (a) ± 0.5% FS, (b) ± 0.75% of
span, and (c) ± 0.8% of reading. What is the possible
temperature in eac h c ase?
Solution:
 Example:
A pressure gauge ranges from 0 to 50 psi, the worst-case
spread
in readings is ±4.35 psi. What is the %FSD ac c urac y?

Solution:
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ± 𝑃𝑒 × 𝐹𝑆
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 ±4.35 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑃𝑒 % =
= = ±8.7%
𝐹𝑆𝐷 50/100 𝑝𝑠𝑖
 Example:
In a temperature measuring system, the transfer function is 3.2
mV/k ± 2.1% k mV, and the accuracy of the transmitter is ±
1.7%. What is the system ac c urac y?

Solution:
1ൗ
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ± 𝑃𝑒1 2+ 𝑃𝑒2 + …
2 2

….
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑒1, 𝑃𝑒2 … . . 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚.
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ± 1ൗ
1 2 + 𝑃𝑒2
2 + …

𝑃𝑒 …. 2
1
= ± 0.0212 + 0.0172 ൗ
= 2
±2.7%
Example:
Find the system accuracy of a flow process if the transducer
transfer function is 10 mV/(m3/s) ± 1.5% and the signal-
c onditioning system-transfer func tion is 2 mA/mV ± 0.5% ,

Solution:
• Transfer function It desc ribes the relationship between the
input
and output for the devic e.

The relation is: 𝑦 = 𝐾𝑥

Example:
A temperature sensor hasa transferfunc tion of 5 m V / °C, with an
accuracy of ± 1%. Find the possible range of the transfer function.
Solution:
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑃𝑒 × 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1
= ± 100 × 5𝑚 𝑉Τ℃ = ±0.05𝑚 𝑉Τ℃
⇒ The transfer function range is 4.95 to 5.05 mV/
°C.
Example
:
Suppose a reading of 27.5 mV results from the temperature sensor
and the transfer function range is 4.95 to 5.05 mV/°C. Find the
temperature that c ould provide this reading.
Solution:
𝑦 = 𝐾𝑥
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑦
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = →𝑥=
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐾

27.5
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑓𝑜𝑟 4.95 mV/°C = = 5.56 °C
4.95

27.5
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑓𝑜𝑟 5.05 mV/°C = = 5.45 °C
5.05

⇒The ac tual temperature for this reading is between 5.45 °C

and
5.56 °C
Example:
A pressure sensor has an accuracy of ±2.2% of reading, and
transfer function of 27 mV/kPa. If the output of the sensor is 231
mV, what is the range of pressures that could give this
reading?
Solution:
• Linearity Linearity is a measure of the proportionality between
the actual value of a variable being measured and the output
reading of the instrument over its operating range.
Figure shows a linearity curve for a
flow sensor, which is the output
from the sensor versus the actual
flow rate. The curve is compared
to a best fit straight line done with
reasonable accuracy by eye or
preferably by the application of
a mathematical least squares line
fitting technique linearity is usually
expressed as a percentage of full
scale reading the deviation from
the idea l is 4c m/min, whic h
gives a linea rity of ±4% of FSD.
Example:
A sensor resistance changes linearly from 100 to 180 Ω as
temperature
changes from 20°C to 120°C. Find a linear equation relating
resistance and temperature. ?
Solution:
Linear equation: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
For 100 Ω and 20°C: 100 = 𝑚 20 + 𝑐 → 1
For 180 Ω and 120°C : 180 = 𝑚(120) + 𝑐 →
2 (2) –
(1): 80 = 𝑚 100
𝑚 = 0.8
𝑚 = 0.8 →(1): 100 = 0.8 20 + 𝑐
𝑐 = 84
∴ y = 0.8𝑥 + 84
• Sensitivity Is a measure of the instrument output change to
the input change. The value of the sensitivity is generally
indic a ted by the transfer func tion. Thus, when a
temperature transducer transfer function 5 mV/°C, the
sensitivity is 5 mV/
°C.

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒

𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝐵𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑

𝐾 = ∆𝑦 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
∆𝑥
Example:
When the output of a flow transducer changes by 4.7 mV for
a change in flow of 1.3 cm/s. what is the sensitivity ?

Solution:
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 4.7
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 1.3 = 3.62 𝑚𝑉Τ𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠
Example:
The following resistance values of a platinum resistance
thermometer were measured at a range of temperatures.
Determine the measurement sensitivity of the instrument in
Ohms/0C, if the sensor is linear.

Resistance (Ω) Temperature (0C)

307 200
314 230
321 260
328 290
Solution:
330

325

320

315

310

305
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 328 − 307
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 0.233 ΩΤ0C
300 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 290 − 200
295
200 230 260 290
Self
Assessment
1. A pressure sensor has a span of 21 to 157 psi. Specify the
error when measuring 102 psi, if the accuracy of the gauge
is
I. ±1.5 % of span
II. ±2% FSD
III.±1.3 % of reading .
2. What is the sensitivity of a linear instrument that records
the following values? 0 ºC = 12.3 V and 45 ºC = 24.3 V.
3. A spring balance has its deflection measured for a number
of
loads
Loadand
(kg) gave the 0following
1 results.
2 3Determine
4 its
sensitivity.
Deflection (mm) 0 10 20 30 40
4. A tungsten 5% rhenium-tungsten 26% rhenium, thermocouple has an
output e.m.f as shown in the following table when its hot (measuring)
junction is at the temperatures shown. Determine the sensitivity of
measurement for the thermocouple in mV/0C.
mV 4.37 8.74 13.11 17.48
0C
250 500 750 1000

5. A displacement sensor has an input range of 0.0 to 3.0 cm.

Using the c alibration results given in the table, c alc ulate:
i. the input and output span.
ii. the maximum non-linearityas a perc entage of f.s.d. (full
sc ale deflection).
iii the sensitivity of the instrument at an input of 1.0 cm.
.
Displacement (cm) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Output Voltage 0 16.5 32 44 51.5 55.5 58
(mV)
6. A pressure gauge has a span of 50 to 150 psi and its absolute accuracy
is
±5 psi. What is its %FSD and span ac c urac y?
• Reproducibility – is the ability of an instrument to repeatedly
read the same signal over time, and give the same output
under the same conditions.
• Resolution – the smallest change in a variable to which the
instrument will respond or the minimum measurable value of
the input va ria ble.

𝑅 = 𝑉𝑛
2

R= Resolution
V= Volta ge
n=number of
bit
Example:
A digital meter has 10-bit accuracy. What is the resolution on
the 16V range?

Solution:
𝑅 = 𝑉𝑛 = = 16 𝑉 =16
= 0.0156 15.6 𝑚𝑉
2 210 1024

Example:
A force is measured in a range of 0 to 150 N with a resolution
of 0.1% FS. Find the sma llest c ha nge in force
tha t c a nbe
mea sured. ?

Solution:
𝑅 = 0.1 × 150 𝑁 = 0.15 𝑁
100
Example:
A sensor has a transfer function of 5 mV/ °C. Find the required
voltage resolution of the signal conditioning if a temperature
resolution of 0.2 °C is required?

Solution:
• Hysteresis is the
differenc e in readings
obtained when an
instrument approaches a
signal from opposite
directions.
• For instance, the output
from zero for a 50cm/min
is 4.2V, compared to 5.6V
when reading the same
flow rate after a
maximum reading.
Example:
Plot a graph of the following readings for a pressure sensor to
determine if there is hysteresis, and if so, what is the hysteresis
as a percenta ge of FSD?

Solution:

Hysteresis =±7%
FSD
• Time constant of a sensor to a sudden change in a measured parameter falls
into two categories, termed first-order and second-order responses.
• The first-order response is the time the sensor takes to reach its final output
after a transient change.
• For example, a temperature measuring device will not change immediately
following a change in temperature, due to the thermal mass of the sensor and
the thermal conductivity of the interface between the hot medium and the
sensing element.
• The response time to a step change in temperature is an exponential given
by:
−𝑡
𝐴 𝑡 = 𝐴0 + (𝐴𝑓 − 𝐴0)(1 − 𝑒
𝑟 )

𝐴 𝑡 = amplitude at time t
𝐴0 = initial amplitude
voltage
𝐴𝑓 = final amplitude
voltage
T = time
𝑟 = time c onstant
Example
:A linear pressure sensor has a time constant of 3.1 seconds, and
a transfer function of 29 mV/kPa. What is the output after 1.3
seconds, if the pressure changes from 17 to 39 kPa? What is the
pressure error at this time?
Solution:

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝐴0 = 17𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑥 29𝑚𝑉

𝑘𝑝𝑎
= 493𝑚𝑉

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝐴𝑓 = 39𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑥 29𝑚𝑉

𝑘𝑝𝑎
= 1131𝑚𝑉
 −𝑡
𝐴 𝑡 = 𝐴0 + (𝐴𝑓 − 𝐴0)(1 − 𝑒
𝑟 )

1.3
𝐴 1.3𝑠 = 493 + (1131 − 493)(1 −
3.1 )
−𝑒

= 711.2𝑚𝑉
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 1.3𝑠 =
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

= 711.2
29
= 24.52
kPa
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 39𝑘𝑃𝑎 − 24.52𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 14.48𝑘𝑃𝑎
Example:
A sensor measures temperature linearly with a static transfer
function of 33 mV/0C and has a 1.5-s time constant. Find the
output 0.75 s after the input changes from 20 to 410C. Find the
error in temperature this represents.
Solution:
• The second-order response occurs when the effect of a transient on the
monitoring unit is to cause oscillations in the output signal before settling
down.
• Figure below shows a typical output curve that might be expected from a
transducer having a second-order response for a discontinuous change in the
input.

• The general behavior c an be desc ribed in

time as
𝑅 𝑡 = the transduc er
𝑅 𝑡 𝖺 𝑅0 𝑒−𝑎𝑡 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑛𝑡) output
𝑅0 = amplitude
𝑓𝑛 = natural frequenc y of the
osc illation
t = time
 Instrument
• Parameters
A general criterion for evaluating the performance of a process
control system is difficult to establish. In order to obtain the
quality of the performance of the controller, the following have
to be answered:
1. Is the system stable?
2. How good is the steady state regulation?
3. How good is the transient regulation?
4. What is the error between the set point and the
variable?
Stability
In a system that uses feedback, there is always the potential
for
stability.
This is due to delays in the system and feedback loop, which
causes the correction signal to be in-phase with the error signal
c hange instead of out-of-phase.
The error and correction signal then become additive, causing
instability. This problem is normally corrected by careful tuning of
the system and damping, but this unfortunately comes at the
expense of a reduction in the response time of the system.
Regulation
The regulation of a variable is the deviation of the variable from
the set point or the error signal. The regulation should be as
tight as possible and is expressed as a percentage of the set
point.
A small error is always present, since this is the signal that is
amplified to drive the actuator to control the input variable
and henc e c ontrols the measured variable.
The smaller the error, the higher the systems gain, which
normally
leads to system instability.
As an example, the set point may be 120 psi, but the regulation
may be 120 ± 2.5 psi, allowing the pressure to vary from 117.5
to
122.5 psi.
Transient Response
The transient response is the system’s reaction time to a sudden
change in a parameter, such as a sudden increase in material
demand, causing a change in the measured variable or in the
set point.
The reaction can be specified as a dampened response or as a
limited degree of overshoot of the measured variable,
depending on the process, in order to return the measured
variable to the set point in a specified time.
 Analog and Digital
• Data
Variables are analog in nature, and before digital processing evolved,
sensor signals were processed using analog circuits and techniques, which
still exist in many processing facilities.
• Most modern systems now use digital techniques for signal processing.

Analog Data
Signal amplitudes are represented by voltage or current amplitudes in
analog systems. Analog processing means that the data, such as signal
linearization, from the sensor is conditioned and corrections that are made
for temperature variations are all performed using analog circuits.
Analog processing also controls the actuators and feedback loops.
The most common current transmission range is 4 to 20 mA, where 0 mA is a
fault indication.
Example
:The pressure in a system has a range from 0 to 75 kPa. What is
the current equivalent of 27 kPa, if the transducer output range
is from 4 to 20 mA?
Solution:

𝑋 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 27𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑋 − 20 20 − 4
=
27 − 75 75 − 0

x − 20 = 16 −48
75

x = −10.25 + 20 =
Digital Data
Signal amplitudes are represented by binary numbers in
digital
systems.
Since variables are analog in nature, and the output from the
sensor needs to be in a digital format, an analog to digital
converter (ADC) must be used, or the sensor’s output must be
directly converted into a digital signal using switching
techniques.
The output of a digital system may have to be converted back
into an analog format for actuator control, using either a digital
to analog c onverter (DAC) or width modulation tec hniques.
Pneumatic Data
Pressure was used for data transmission before the use of
electrical signals and is still used in conditions where high
electrical noise could affect electrical signals, or in hazardous
conditions where an electrical spark could cause an explosion
or fire hazard.
The most common range for pneumatic data transmission is 3 to
15 psi (20 to 100 kPa in SI units), where 0 psi is a fault
condition.
Smart Sensors
The digital revolution also has brought about large changes in
the methodology used in process control. The ability to cost-
effectively integrate all the controller functions, along with ADCs
and DACs, have produced a family of Smart Sensors that
combine the sensor and control function into a single housing.
This device reduces the load on the central processor and
communicates to the central processor via a single serial bus
(Fieldbus), reducing facility wiring requirements and making the
concept of plug-and-play a reality when adding new sensors.
Q&A