QUALITY & RELIABILITY

Dr Maheshwar Dwivedy

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 Evolution of Quality Control
• Craftsmanship- Foreman Inspection 1940 to 1960 :
Quality quality Statistical
Individuals control control phase quality control
responsible. (1900-1920)
(1920 to
100% inspection
Industrial 1940) was not feasible.
• pyramids revolution,
• Quality of Greek mass Products ASQC was
production. complicated, formed in 1946
architecture and developed
Specialization sampling
• Volume limited. of labour and volume inspection plans
hence increased.
individual not
responsible for Deming and J.M.
producing Control charts Juran visited
whole product. acceptance Japan for SQC
sampling plan
developed. Inspection and
Quality control
handbook

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 Evolution of Quality Control – contd..
 1960 to 1970 : Total quality • 1970 to present : contd..
control • A quality system was
 Involvement of other evolved which is-
departments and management • Companywide operating
Documented procedures,
 No more quality is
• Expanded use of Ishikawa
responsibility of inspection diagram (control charts)
department. • Concept of quality
 Concept of ‘zero defect’ improvement through
 Use of Quality circles design of experiments
• Advertisements on
comparing competitors
brought quality into
limelight for business.

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Quality - Definition 4

 Juran (1974): Fitness for use

 Crosby (1979): Conformance to requirements or

specifications

 Mitra (2000)
 Qualityis the fitness of the product or service for meeting or exceeding
its intended use as required by customer.

 The ISO 9000 family of quality management systems (QMS) is a set of

standards that helps organizations ensure they meet customers and
other stakeholder needs within statutory and regulatory requirements
related to a product or service.
 How to define quality? 5

The term quality implies different levels of expectations for different groups of
consumers.

For instance, to some, a quality restaurant may be one that provides extraordinary
cuisine served on the finest china with an ambience of soft music. However, to another
group of consumers, the characteristics that comprise a quality restaurant may be quite
different: excellent food served buffet style at moderate prices with fast service.

So, How to define?

Answer is-

• using Quality Characteristics

• Just a hint- “Quality characteristics are the elements that define the
intended quality level of the product or service”.
How to define quality? – contd.. 6

• Diameter
• Length
• Pressure
• Wall Thickness

• Taste,
Smell

• Price, Way
of serving
etc.
 How to define quality? – contd. 7

Place B Place A

• Time
• Reliability
How to define quality? – contd. 8

•Honesty
•Courtesy
Quality characteristics 9

 Can be grouped under 4 categories

 Structural characteristics: Length, Viscosity, Strength

 Sensory characteristics: Taste, smell, etc.

 Time related characteristics: Warranty, reliability

 Ethical characteristics: Honesty, courtesy etc.

Types of Quality characteristics 10

Variables
Measurable and expressed on numerical scale,
Eg., Diameter, Resistance etc.

Attributes
If a characteristic is said to be conforming or non
conforming or that cant be measured
Variable can be attribute, but attribute cannot be
variable
It results in economical measurement and time
saving
NC 11

• Nonconformity • Nonconforming unit

• A quality characteristic • A unit that has one or

that does not meet its more nonconformities
stipulated such that the unit is
specifications unable to meet the
intended standards and
• Eg. Thickness of plate: 5 is unable to function as
+/- 0.1, but if it is 5.2, required
then nonconformity • Eg. A plate having both
thickness and length
failing to meet
specifications
• Defect • Defective
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• Associated with quality • Severity of one or more

characteristic that does not defects in a product
meet certain standards may cause it to be
unacceptable
• According to ANSI, a defect is a
departure of quality
characteristic from its intended
level or state that occurs with a
severity sufficient to cause an
associated product or service
not to satisfy intended normal
or reasonable foreseeable
usage requirements
Aspects of Quality – contd..

Quality of
conformance

Quality of Quality of
design performance

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Aspects of Quality 14

 Quality of design

Implies that the product or service must

minimally possess to satisfy the requirements
of the customer
Design must be simplest and least expensive
too
Influenced by such factors as the type of
product, cost, profit policy, demand,
availability of parts and materials, product
safety etc.
 Aspects of Quality – contd.. 15

• Quality of design – Effect of increase as-

• Value of product increases at a decreasing rate, with the rate of

increase approaching zero beyond a certain quality level

• At the middle, it maximizes the difference between value and cost,

given that minimum requirement ‘A’ is met.
Aspects of Quality – contd..
 Quality of conformance
Implies that the manufactured product or service
rendered must meet the standards selected in the design
phase

With respect to manufacturing, it is concerned with the

degree to which quality is controlled from the
procurement of raw material to the shipment of finished
goods.

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• Quality of performance

• Is concerned with how well the product functions or

service performs, when put to use
• It measures the degree to which the product or
service satisfies the customer
• It is a function of both quality of design and quality
of conformance
• If a product does not function well enough to meet
the expectation of a customer or standards, then
adjustment need to be done in the design or
conformance phase

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 Relation between QOD, QOC, QOP – contd.. 18

QOD has an impact on the QOC

Eg. If length of a shaft is 20 +/- 0.2mm, then the tools,

equipment and operations should be able to achieve this
design specification , ie. QOC should be capable of meeting
QOD, if not QOD is affected.

This result in constant exchange of information between

QOC and QOD or design and manufacturing phases for a
feasible design to be achieved.

Only single line interaction between QOC and QOP,

because, if QOD is met in QOC phase, then the QOP will
always be good and hence no double line.
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Standard & Specification

•A standard, or a specification, refers to a precise

statement that formalizes the requirements of the
customer; it may relate to a product, a process, or a
service.

•For example, the specifications for an axle might be 2 ±

0.1 centimeters (cm) for the inside diameter, 4 ± 0.2 cm
for he outside diameter, and 10 ± 0.5 cm for the length.
This means that for an axle to be acceptable to the
customer, each of these dimensions must be within the
values specified.
 Definitions given by the National Bureau of
Standards (NBS, 2005)

• Specification: a set of conditions and • Standard: a prescribed set of conditions

requirements, of specific and limited and requirements, of general or broad
application, that provide a detailed application, established by authority or
description of the procedure, agreement, to be satisfied by a material,
process, material, product, or service product, process, procedure, convention,
for use primarily in procurement and test method; and/or the physical,
manufacturing. Standards may be functional, performance, or conformance
referenced or included in a characteristic thereof.
specification.
• A physical embodiment of a unit of
measurement e.g Kg, mm, etc.

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Quality control
 It is defined as a system that is used to maintain a
desired level of quality in a product or service.

 Can be achieved by planning, design, use of proper

equipment and procedures, inspection and taking
corrective action in case of deviation.

 3 main sub areas-

1. Off-line quality control

2. Statistical process control
3. Acceptance sampling plans
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 Quality Assurance
• Definition: “It refers to all those planned or
systematic actions necessary to provide confidence
that a product or service will satisfy given needs”
• Role and purpose- “System that ensures all
procedures that have been designed and planned
are followed”
• Objective of quality assurance is to have in place a
formal system that continually survey the
effectiveness of the quality philosophy of the
company
• Quality assurance is conducted by carrying out a
AUDIT to check whether the given procedures are
followed or not
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Quality control – contd..

• Statistical Process Control

• Involves comparing the output of a process or service with a

standard and taking remedial action in case of a discrepancy
• Also involves whether a process can produce a product that
meets desired specification
• Generally SPC are online control procedures
• The information is gathered about the product, process or
service while it is functional and when the output differs
from a norm, corrective action is taken during operation

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Quality control – contd..
 Statistical Process Control – contd..

It is most desirable to corrective action on a real time

basis, as it minimizes the
No. of unacceptable items produced
Time over which undesirable services rendered

Prevailing theme of quality control is that “Quality has to

be designed into the product or service; it cannot be
inspected into it”
Though offline quality control measures are taken, there
may be a need for online quality control, because variation
in the manufacturing stage of the product or the delivery
of a service is inevitable
A combination of offline and online quality control
measures will lead to a desirable level of operation
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Quality control – contd..
 Acceptance sampling plans

Deals with inspection of product or service

Used when 100% inspection is not possible
Requires a decision on how many items should a sample
contain?
Sample is inspected
Compared with acceptance number, i.e. no. of
nonconforming items allowed in a sample and if less, the
whole batch is accepted
Acceptance criteria is based on meeting certain stipulated
conditions (such as the risk of rejecting a good lot or
accepting a bad lot)
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Quality Improvement
Is a never ending process to reduce both the variability of
process and the production of nonconforming items
Process control deals with identification and elimination of
special causes that force a system to go out of control,
while quality improvement relates to the detection and
elimination of common causes

 Common causes  Special causes

 Inherent to the system and are  Not inherent to the system
always present  Impact on the output is not
 Impact on the output may be uniform
uniform  Are controllable by the operator
 Needs the attention of  Are those for which an
management identifiable reason can be
 Accounts for at least 90% of the determined like tool wear, poor
quality problems raw materials etc.
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Examples of quality problems

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Quality Circle and Quality Improvement Team

 Quality circle  Quality Improvement team

 Informal group  Formal group
 Participation is voluntary  Participation is mandatory
 People from same area or  People from different
dept. department
 Consists of operators,  Work towards improvement
supervisors and managers of product or process from
 Work towards improvement quality perspective
of product, process or their  Team gets dismantled after
personal well being completion of project
 Team never gets dismantled
 Productivity improvement
tool

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Benefits of Quality Control
 Cannot be realized immediately, but on long-term perspective
 Benefits
 System is continually evaluated and modified to meet the changing
needs of customers and hence a mechanism exists to rapidly modify
product or process
 QC improves productivity as it reduces the scrap and rework
 QC reduces cost in the long run and helps productivity and cost
reduction go hand in hand
 Improved delivery dates, due to reduction in lead time for producing
parts and S/A are reduced
 Helps to stay competitive
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Quality Costs

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Quality Costs

• Prevention costs

• Incurred in planning, implementing and maintaining a

quality system
• Includes salaries, development cost for product design,
process, equipment design, info. System design,
education and training, cost of a quality audit
• It increases with time

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 Quality Costs – contd..

• Appraisal costs
• Are those associated with measuring, evaluating or auditing
products, components, purchased materials to determine the
degree of conformance to the specified standards
• It includes inspection and test of incoming material, product
inspection and testing, cost of calibrating and maintaining
measuring instruments etc.

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Quality Costs – contd..
• Internal failure costs
• Incurred when products or services fail to meet quality
requirements prior to the transfer of ownership to the
customer
• Also includes cost of lost production time, downgrading cost,
re-inspection cost etc.

• External failure costs

• Incurred when the product does not perform satisfactorily
after ownership is transferred to customer

• Includes cost of adjustment, investigation, costs due to receipt

handling, repair and replacement of parts, warranty charges
etc.

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 Quality Costs – Examples
• External quality cost Internal quality cost

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Quality Costs – Examples

• Prevention cost • Appraisal cost

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Effect of Quality on costs

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Service Sector and Quality

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 Service Quality Characteristics
• Today, service industries dominate our economy. The service sector
accounts for more than 80% of jobs, and the number continues to grow.

• Quality improvement looms large in the ongoing success of this sector of

the economy.

• Ex. ISO 9001 which is an international standard that provides guidelines for
the implementation of a quality management system in an organisation.

• Even small/medium-sized service organisations, including consultants and

professional, accountants, lawyers, architects, and marketing firms can
benefit from by ISO 9001.

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Quality Guru’s

• Walter A Shewhart
• Kaoru Ishikawa
• ​Shigeo Shingo ​
• Edwards Deming​
• Philip Crosby
• Joseph Juran

• Read about the above all Gurus and their contribution

[Link]

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SPC and control charts

Also known as

•Shewhart chart
•Statistical process control chart

Types-
•For variables
•For attibutes
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Note Material Source from- [Link]
 What is Control chart

• The control chart is a graph used to study how a process changes over
time.

• Data are plotted in time order. A control chart always has a central line
for the average, an upper line for the upper control limit, and a lower
line for the lower control limit.

• These lines are determined from historical data. By comparing current

data to these lines, you can draw conclusions about whether the process
variation is consistent (in control) or is unpredictable (out of control,
affected by special causes of variation).

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WHEN TO USE A CONTROL CHART

•When controlling ongoing processes by finding and

correcting problems as they occur
•When predicting the expected range of outcomes from
a process
•When determining whether a process is stable (in
statistical control)
•When analyzing patterns of process variation from
special causes (non-routine events) or common causes
(built into the process)
•When determining whether your quality improvement
project should aim to prevent specific problems or to
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BASIC PROCEDURE

• Choose the appropriate control chart for your data.

• Determine the appropriate time period for
collecting and plotting data.
• Collect data, construct your chart and analyze the
data.
• Look for "out-of-control signals" on the control
chart. When one is identified, mark it on the chart
and investigate the cause. Document how you
investigated, what you learned, the cause and how
it was corrected.

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Rules- Out-of-control signals
• A single point outside the control limits. In Figure 1, point sixteen is above the
UCL (upper control limit).
• Two out of three successive points are on the same side of the centerline and
farther than 2 σ from it. In Figure 1, point 4 sends that signal.
• Four out of five successive points are on the same side of the centerline and
farther than 1 σ from it. In Figure 1, point 11 sends that signal.
• A run of eight in a row are on the same side of the centerline. Or 10 out of 11,
12 out of 14, or 16 out of 20. In Figure 1, point 21 is eighth in a row above the
centerline.
• Obvious consistent or persistent patterns that suggest something unusual
about your data and your process.
• Continue to plot data as they are generated. As each new data point is plotted,
check for new out-of-control signals.

Spl Case- When you start a new control chart, the process may be out of control.
If so, the control limits calculated from the first 20 points are conditional limits.
When you have at least 20 sequential points from a period when the process is
operating in control, recalculate control limits.
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Errors in making inferences

Making inferences from a control chart is similar to testing a hypothesis

•Control limits are the critical points that separate the rejection and
acceptance region

•If a sample values fall above UCL or below LCL, then we reject null
hypothesis (Ho= process is in control) or say that process is out of control

•Type I error (Rejecting a good lot)

• Inferring that a process is out of control, when it is actually in control
• Probability of Type I error is given by ‘α’

•Type II error (Accepting a bad lot)

• Inferring that a process is in control, when it is really out of control
• All points may fall within limit, but
48 process mean has changed
A semiautomatic turret lathe machines the thickness of a part that is
subsequently used in an assembly. The process mean is known to
be 30 mm with a standard deviation of 1.5 mm. Construct a control
chart for the average thickness using 3ó limits if samples of size 5
are randomly selected from the process. Table 6-1 shows the
average thickness of 15 samples selected from the process. Plot
these on a control chart, and make inferences

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Why to study Reliability?
• “Reliability is a measure of the quality of the product over the long
run.”
• We expect the product will function according to certain
expectations over a stipulated period of time
• To ensure customer satisfaction during the performance phase we
must address measures to improve reliability in the design phase
itself.
• The complex nature of products requires many components in their
construction, and its necessary to have a good reliability for the
whole system itself. This is called as “System Reliability.”

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Definition of Reliability
• What is Reliability?

• “Reliability is the probability of a product performing

its intended function for a stated period of time
under certain specified conditions”

• Example: Reliability of a cable is given as having a

probability of successful performance of 0.90 in
withstanding 1000Kg of load for 2 years under dry
condition

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Life cycle curve
• Most product goes through three distinct phases from product
creation to wear out
• A life cycle curve is a plot between failure rate λ and time
• Also called as ‘Bathtub curve’ (Figure)
• Consists of three phases, namely: Debugging or infant mortality,
Chance failure / useful life time, Wear out / aging

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 Life cycle curve – contd..

• Debugging phase exhibits a drop in the failure rate as initial problems

identified during prototype testing are ironed out
• In chance failure phase, the failure rate is constant and here failure
occurs randomly and independently. Also, it is called as useful period
• In wear out phase, an increase in failure rate is observed, as the
product approaches its end of their useful life as parts age and wear
out
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Probability distributions- Used to model
the failure rate
Exponential distribution

Weibull distribution

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 System Reliability
• “Reliability of the product (made up of a number of
components) is determined by the reliability of each component
and also by the configuration of the system consisting of these
components”.
• Product design, manufacture, maintenance influence reliability,
but design has a major role.
• One common approach for increasing the reliability of the
system is through “redundancy in design”, which is usually
achieved by placing components in parallel.

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Systems with components in series
For the system to operate, each component must
operate.
It is assumed that the components operate
independently of each other (Failure of one
component has no influence on the failure of any
other component)

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Series System Example

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Series System- Analysis

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Series System- Analysis

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Series System- Analysis

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Parallel System Example

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System Reliability – Systems with components
in parallel
• Systems with components in parallel

• System reliability can be improved by placing

components in parallel as system will operate as long
as at least one of the components operates.

• The only time the system fails is when all the parallel
components fail.

• All components are assumed to operate

simultaneously.

• A system having ‘n’ components in parallel, with the

reliability of the ith component denoted by Ri, i=1, 2,
----- n.
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System Reliability – contd..
• Systems with components in parallel – contd..
• The probability of failure of each component is given by
Fi = 1-Ri.
• System fails only if all the components fail and hence the
probability of system failure is
n
Fs  1  R1 1  R2    1  Rn    (1  Ri )
• Reliability of the system is the complement i 1 of Fs and is
given by

n
Rs  1  Fs  1  1  Ri
i 1

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Systems in Parallel
 Systems in Parallel
The probability of failure free operation of a system with several
elements is always higher than that of the best element in the
system.
Example-1 (Series)

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Example-2 (Series)

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Example-3: Very complex systems (Series)

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Example-4: Parallel

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Example-5: Parallel

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 Combined arrangement
In some systems, both series and parallel arrangements of elements
appear together.
The group of elements arranged in series is replaced by one element
with equivalent reliability parameters. Parallel elements can
sometimes also be replaced by an equivalent element, and so on.

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Combined arrangement- Example

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Combined arrangement- Example

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Other Solved Problems
Other Solved Problems
Thanks

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