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OCEANOGRAPH
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The Hemispheres of the
Earth
Northern Hemisphere is approximately
39% land.
The Southern Hemisphere is approximately
19% land.
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What is Oceanography?
Oceanography is the study of the physical and biological
characteristics of the ocean, including its geography, chemistry, physics,
and geology. It encompasses a range of disciplines, including marine
biology, geology, meteorology, and chemistry, and seeks to understand the
complex interactions between the ocean and the Earth system.
Oceanographers use a variety of tools and techniques to study the ocean,
including satellites, ships, and underwater vehicles. The study of
oceanography has important practical applications, such as understanding
the impacts of climate change and supporting sustainable use of ocean
resources.
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Why study Oceanography?
Oceanography is important for several reasons:
1. Climate regulation: The ocean plays a major role in regulating the Earth's
climate by absorbing and storing heat, carbon dioxide, and other substances.
Studying oceanography helps us better understand these processes and their
impact on the Earth's climate.
2. Biodiversity: The ocean is home to a vast array of plant and animal species,
many of which are not found anywhere else on the planet. Studying
oceanography helps us understand and protect this diverse ecosystem.
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Why study Oceanography?
3. Natural resource management: The ocean is a source of food, energy, minerals, and
other resources that are critical to human society. Studying oceanography helps us
make informed decisions about the sustainable use of these resources.
4. Environmental protection: The ocean is vulnerable to a range of human activities,
including pollution, overfishing, and climate change. Studying oceanography helps us
understand and address these threats to the health of the ocean and its inhabitants.
5. Scientific discovery: The ocean is a vast and largely unknown frontier, and studying
oceanography has the potential to yield new scientific discoveries and innovations.
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4 Disciplines of Oceanography
● Geological Oceanography
● Chemical Oceanography
● Physical Oceanography
● Biological Oceanography
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Geological Oceanography
Geological oceanography is the study of Earth
beneath the oceans. It involves geochemical,
geophysical, sedimentological and
paleontological investigations of the ocean
floor and coastal margins. Geological
oceanography includes exploring the ocean
floor and the processes that form its canyons,
valleys and mountains . Geological
oceanographers research on the sea-floor
spreading, plate tectonics, and oceanic
circulation and climates.
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Chemical Oceanography
Chemical oceanography encompasses
the study of the chemical components
of the oceans, their reactions, and
their pathways of transformation.
Chemical oceanography is concerned
with the study of the dissolved
elements in sea water and the ocean's
numerous chemical and biochemical
cycles.
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Physical Oceanography
Physical oceanography is the study of the
physical properties and dynamic
processes of the oceans. Physical
oceanographers study the interaction of
the ocean with the atmosphere, how the
ocean stores and releases heat, the
physical properties of water throughout
the ocean, and the formation and
movement of currents and coastal
dynamics.
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Biological Oceanography
Biological oceanography is the
study of life in the oceans—the
distribution, abundance, and
production of marine species along
with the processes that govern
species' spread and development.
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Oceans
Arctic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean
Southern Ocean
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Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and
deepest of the world's oceans, covering
over 60 million square miles and
accounting for one-third of the Earth's
surface. It borders Asia and Australia to
the west and the Americas to the east, and
is located between the Arctic and Antarctic
regions.
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Atlantic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean, body of salt
water covering approximately one-fifth of
Earth’s surface and separating the
continents of Europe and Africa to the
east from those of North and South
America to the west. The ocean’s
name, derived from Greek mythology,
means the “Sea of Atlas.” It is second in
size to the Pacific Ocean.
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Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the world’s third-
largest ocean after the Pacific and Atlantic,
covering about 20% of the Earth’s surface. Its
area is roughly 5.5 times the size of the
USA. It is bounded by Asia to the north,
Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To
the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean
or Antarctica.
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Southern/Antarctic Ocean
Southern Ocean, also called Antarctic
Ocean, body of salt water covering
approximately one-sixteenth of Earth’s total
ocean area. The Southern Ocean is made up
of the portions of the world ocean south of
the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian oceans and their
tributary seas surrounding Antarctica below
60° S.
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Arctic Ocean
Arctic Ocean, smallest of the world’s
oceans, centering approximately on the North
Pole. The Arctic Ocean is Earth's
northernmost body of water. It encircles the
Arctic, and flows beneath it. Most of the
Arctic Ocean is covered by ice throughout the
year—although that is starting to change as
temperatures climb. Pale and stark on the
surface, the Arctic Ocean is home to a
stunning array of life.
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Life in the Ocean
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A. Plankton
Plankton are usually microscopic, often less than one inch in length, but
they also include larger species like some crustaceans and jellyfish.
Scientists classify plankton in several ways, including by size, type, and
how long they spend drifting.
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Phytoplankton
Derived from the Greek words phyto (plant) and plankton (made to wander or
drift), phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that live in watery environments, both
salty and fresh.
Some phytoplankton are bacteria, some are protists, and most are single-celled
plants. Among the common kinds are cyanobacteria, silica-encased diatoms,
dinoflagellates, green algae, and chalk-coated coccolithophores.
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Zooplankton
Zooplankton are small, aquatic microorganisms in the water column
that include crustaceans, rotifers, open water insect larvae and aquatic
mites. The zooplankton community is composed of both primary
consumers, which eat free-floating algae, and secondary consumers, which
feed on other zooplankton.
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B. Nekton
Nekton (or swimmers) are living organisms that are able to swim and
move independently of currents. Nekton are heterotrophic and have a large
size range, with familiar examples such as fish, squid, octopus, sharks, and
marine mammals.
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C. Benthos
Benthos refers to organisms living on the bottom or associated with
substrata. Terms synonymous with benthic algae are Periphyton and
Aufwuchs. The nature of the habitat in which these organisms are found
depends on the habitats present and on the size of the organisms.
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Benthic Environment
The benthic zone is the lowest ecological zone in a water body, and
usually involves the sediments at the seafloor. These sediments play an
important role in providing nutrients for the organisms that live in the
benthic zone.
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Pelagic Environment
The pelagic environment comprises the entire water column. Of all the
inhabited environments on Earth it is by far the largest and most diverse,
ranging from the surface photic zone to the abyssal depths where life exists
in total darkness and at huge pressure.
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Threats to the Ocean
1. Climate change
Climate change arguably presents the greatest threat to ocean health. It is making
oceans hotter, promoting acidification, and making it harder to breathe in them by
reducing dissolved oxygen levels. Imagine how poorly a fish in an aquarium would
fare if we turned up the heat, dripped in acid, and pulled out the oxygen bubbler. This
is slowly but surely what we are doing to our oceans.
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Threats to the Ocean
2. Plastic pollution
More than five trillion pieces of plastic pollution are afloat in the oceans. And
the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is growing. For every pound of tuna we are taking
out of the ocean, we are putting two pounds of plastic back in. Bold interventions to
reduce plastic pollution are urgently needed.
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Threats to the Ocean
3. Sustainable seafood
Almost a third of global fish stocks are overfished. Fish that were once extremely
abundant, such as blue fin tuna, are now becoming increasingly endangered. Illegal,
unreported and unregulated fishing can cost the global economy up to $23 billion
annually. Restaurants and seafood markets in many areas routinely serve endangered
seafood species that are the underwater equivalent of a rhino or a panda.
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Threats to the Ocean
4. Marine protected areas
We are behind the curve on setting up protected areas in the ocean. Today, only
2% of our global oceans are included in strongly protected marine parks. Scientists
estimate we may need to protect 30% of the oceans to provide properly for the future
of ocean wildlife and ocean health.
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Threats to the Ocean
5. Fisheries subsidies
Every year, governments spend $35 billion on fisheries subsidies, the majority of
which directly accelerate harmful overfishing. Subsidies lead to overcapacity in fishing
fleets and allow vessels to fish harder for longer, even when it would not otherwise make
economic sense. For example, a large portion of fishing on the high seas, where fish are
an internationally shared resource, would likely be unprofitable without fisheries
subsidies.
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Marine Ecosystems
● Includes: estuaries, coral reefs, oceans, and polar ecosystems
● Marine ecosystems contain dissolved salt
● In oceans, lack of water is not a problem. Therefore, the types of
organisms present are dependent upon temperature, sunlight
available, and nutrients.
Estuaries
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Estuaries
● An ecosystem where fresh water from rivers and streams mixes with salt
water from the ocean.
● Estuaries contain plenty of light and nutrients which support large
populations of plants and animals.
● Plants and animals that live in estuaries are able to tolerate variations in
salinity because the salt content of the water varies as the fresh and salt
water mix.
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Threats to Estuaries
● Estuaries provide harbors, access to the ocean, and connections to
rivers. As a result, many of the world’s largest cities are built on
estuaries. Because of this, many estuaries have become polluted.
● Pesticides, automobile fluids like antifreeze, oil or grease, and
metals such as mercury or lead have all been found to pollute
estuaries.
Coral Reefs
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Coral Reefs
● Coral reefs are limestone islands in the sea that are built by coral animals
called polyps.
● Thousands of species of plants and animals live in the cracks and crevices
of coral reefs, making coral reefs among the most diverse ecosystems on
Earth.
● Corals can only live in warm salt water where there is enough light for
photosynthesis. Therefore, coral reefs are only found in shallow, tropical
seas.
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Threats to Coral Reefs
● If the water surrounding a reef is too hot or cold, or if fresh water drains
into the water surrounding a reef, corals have trouble producing
limestone.
● If the water is too muddy, too polluted, or too high in nutrients, algae that
live within the corals will die or grow out of control and smother the
corals.
● Oil spills, sewage, pesticide, and silt runoff have all been linked to coral
reef destruction.
Polar System
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Polar Ecosystem
● The ice-covered polar caps can be considered marine ecosystems
because nearly all food is provided by phytoplankton in the ocean.
● The North Pole is in the Arctic Ocean and the South Pole is in the
Antarctica.
● Plankton provides the main source of food at both poles.
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Threats to Polar Ecosystem
● Oil extraction, tourism, and garbage are the worst threats to the polar
ecosystems.
● Conservationists want these areas to become world wildlife refuges.
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Upwelling
Winds blowing across the ocean surface push water away. Water then
rises up from beneath the surface to replace the water that was pushed
away. This process is known as “upwelling.” Upwelling occurs in the
open ocean and along coastlines.
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Upwelling
Areas of upwelling are created by surface winds that pull water
away from an area. This deficit of water on the surface invites
water to come up from deeper regions.
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To understand upwelling, you must be familiar with how the Coriolis Effect
affects ocean surface currents. The Coriolis Effect acts on moving water,
because it is not attached to the rotating Earth. As water flows over the
rotating earth, it appears to deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere
and the left in the Southern.
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The deep water that surfaces in upwelling is cold; by looking at Sea
Surface Temperature maps we can identify cool upwelled water versus
hotter surface water.
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Upwelled water also contains nutrients (nitrate, phosphate, silicate) and
dissolved gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) that are not utilized at depth
because of a lack of sunlight.
Now on the surface, these nutrients and gases help to fuel
photosynthesis by small algae called phytoplankton.
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Phytoplankton photosynthesize using specialized color pigments called
chlorophyll. Thus, “Ocean Color” maps are another way to identify
areas of upwelling. Where on this ocean color map are high
phytoplankton concentrations?
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Ecological and Economic effects of upwelling:
● Upwelling leads to more phytoplankton
● More phytoplankton leads to more fish
● More fish lead to commercial fishing jobs and to more seafood
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Even though upwelling areas account for only 1% of the ocean surface, they
support 50% of the worlds fisheries.
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Phytoplankton come in many shapes and forms. Collectively they form
the base of oceanic food webs.
Without upwelling many of the world’s fisheries would not thrive.
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Some climatic events can reduce upwellings.
El Niño
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Along Peru’s coast, an El Nino event decreases the coastal winds. Thus the
upwelling from below is slowed.
An El Nino condition results from weakened trade winds in the western Pacific
Ocean near Indonesia, allowing piled-up warm water to flow toward South America.
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What is La Niña?
La Niña is characterized by unusually cold ocean
temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific, compared to El Niño,
which is characterized by unusually warm ocean
temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific.
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Instruments of Investigation
Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus (SCUBA)
Tanks of compressed air strapped on a diver’s back and connected by
hoses to a mouthpiece for breathing.
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Instruments of Investigation
Sound Navigation And Radar (SONAR)
Methods of mapping the ocean floor by transmission and reflection
of sound waves.
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Instruments of Investigation
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES)
Orbit the Earth at 22,000 miles. They are highly advanced
observation platforms supplying detailed imagery of the Earth’s
oceans.
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Instruments of Investigation
Underwater Laboratories
The Aquarius Underwater Laboratory is the only undersea laboratory
dedicated to marine science operating in the world. Aquarius provides life
support systems that allow scientists to live and work underwater, in
reasonably comfortable living quarters, with sophisticated research
capabilities.
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Instruments of Investigation
Inside of the Aquarius Underwater Laboratory
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Instruments of Investigation
Deep ocean submersibles
Over the last few decades, engineers have developed technologies
capable of meeting the many challenges that the deep sea imposes
upon explorers.
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Three Main Types of Submersibles
1. Human-occupied vehicles (HOVs)
Transport a small team of scientists and pilots directly to the seafloor for a limited
amount of time. Similar to the other submersibles, HOVs are equipped with tools such
as lights, cameras, sensors, manipulator arms, and collection instruments. However,
HOVs are unique in their ability to bring scientist’s own eyes and knowledge as deep
as thousands of meters underwater to explore, observe, collect samples, and conduct
research first-hand.
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Three Main Types of Submersibles
2. Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs)
Tethered underwater robots used for research, exploration, and imagery
collection in the water column and on the seafloor. ROVs are tethered to the
ship, allowing control signals to be sent and received directly between topside
operators and the subsea vehicle.
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Three Main Types of Submersibles
3. Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs)
Pre-programmed robots that can drift, dive, or glide through the ocean without real-
time control by human operators. AUVs collect high-resolution sensor data, which
provides detailed information for researchers. Once deployed, AUVs operate on their
own, guided by a pre-planned route, which permits scientists to conduct other research
while the AUV is surveying the surface or deep ocean.
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TIDES
A. Tidal range
The difference in height between the high tide and the low tide is called the tidal
range. A horizontal movement of water often accompanies the rising and falling
of the tide.
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Tidal Range
High tides
Occur twice a day, when the ocean water bulges as a result of the
gravitational pull of the overhead moon.
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Tidal Range
Low tides
Occur twice a day, when the two areas of the earth are not experiencing high
tide.
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TIDES
B. Spring Tide
Exceptionally high and low tides that occur at the time of the full and new
moons, when the sun, earth, and moon are approximately aligned.
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TIDES
C. Neap Tide
Times when the difference between high and low tide are minimized. Occur
during quarter moons.
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Waves and Wave Action
A wave forms in a series of crests and troughs. The crests are the peak heights of
the wave and the troughs are the lowest valleys. A wave is described by its wavelength
(or the distance between two sequential crests or two sequential troughs), the wave
period (or the time it takes a wave to travel the wavelength), and the wave frequency
(the number of wave crests that pass by a fixed location in a given amount of time).
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A. Characteristics of Waves
1. Crest - Highest point on a transverse wave. Also called the peak.
2. Trough - Lowest point on a transverse wave.
3. Wavelength - Distance between 2 adjacent wave crests or wave troughs.
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A. Characteristics of Waves
4. Wave frequency – the number of waves that pass a point in a certain amount
of time.
5. Wave period – time between the passage of two wave crests (or troughs) at a
fixed point
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A. Characteristics of Waves
6. Wave height – vertical distance between crest and trough of a wave
7. Breaker – high wave crest that has been pulled down by gravity
8. Surf – area between the breaker zone and the shore
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A. Characteristics of Waves
9. White caps – wave crests breaking into white foam
10. Swells – formation of long wavelength surface waves more stable than
normal wind waves and formed by storms
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A. Characteristics of Waves
11. Deep water waves – waves that move in water deeper than ½ their
wavelength
12. Shallow water waves – waves that reach water shallower than ½ their
wave height
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B. Tsunami
Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the
sea. Out in the depths of the ocean, tsunami waves do not dramatically increase in
height. But as the waves travel inland, they build up to higher and higher heights as the
depth of the ocean decreases. The speed of tsunami waves depends on ocean depth
rather than the distance from the source of the wave.
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C. Storm Surge
Storm surge is an abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the
predicted astronomical tides. Storm surge should not be confused with storm tide, which
is defined as the water level rise due to the combination of storm surge and the
astronomical tide.
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D. Undertow
An "undertow" is a steady, offshore-directed compensation flow, which occurs
below waves near the shore. Physically, nearshore, the wave-induced mass flux
between wave crest and trough is onshore directed. This mass transport is localized
in the upper part of the water column, i.e. above the wave troughs.
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E. Longshore Current
The longshore current definition specifically refers to ocean currents that travel
parallel to the shore. They are also known as littoral currents, with the
word littoral translating from Latin to (with the) shore. As the waves of a longshore
current reach the shoreline, they carry or push water, sand, and sediment in a single
direction down the length of the beach.
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Currents and Climates
A. Ocean currents
Ocean currents are the continuous, predictable, directional movement of seawater
driven by gravity, wind (Coriolis Effect), and water density. Ocean water moves in two
directions: horizontally and vertically. Horizontal movements are referred to as currents,
while vertical changes are called upwellings or downwellings.
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Currents and Climates
B. Surface currents
Surface currents are caused mainly by winds but not daily winds. Surface currents are
caused by the major wind belts. These winds blow in the same direction all the time. So
they can keep water moving in the same direction. Either cool or warm the air above it
influencing the climate of the land near the coast (example – Gulf Stream)
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Currents and Climates
C. Deep currents
Deep currents are caused by differences in density at the top and bottom. More dense
water takes up less space than less dense water. It has the same mass but less volume.
Water that is more dense sinks. Less dense water rises.
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At the shoreline
Water becomes shallow, wave height increases because wave length
decreases
Waves become steeper, then collapse (breakers)
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Wave refraction
● Close to coast, water gets more shallow
● Waves are slowed down
● If waves arrive at an angle, one part is
slower than the rest
● Causes waves to bend = wave refraction
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● Waves arriving at bays are
slow (deposition)
● At headlands, faster
(erosion)
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● A sequence of features is produced
as headlands are degraded
● Sea cliffs
● Waves erode base - undercutting
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● A headland is a narrow piece of land
which sticks out from the coast into the
sea.
● Headlands may be eroded back leaving a
remnant (stack)
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Longshore drift
● Waves arrive at a coast at an angle
(swash)
● Backwash returns at 90 degrees
Sand is moved along the beach = longshore drift or longshore
current.
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Coastal deposition
● Result of longshore drift and a lot of
sediment
● Produces extensions of deposit from the
shoreline
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spit = curved extension
● May grow across a bay (baymouth
bar)
● May link an island to the main land
(tombolo)
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Types of Coastline
Collision Coasts
Collision coasts are those that occur along active plate margins, where the two plates
are in collision or impinging upon each other. Tectonically, this is an area of crustal
compression and consumption. These coasts are characterized by narrow continental
shelves bordered by deep basins and ocean trenches.
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Types of Coastline
Trailing-edge coasts
Trailing-edge coasts occur on the trailing-edge of a land mass that moves with the
plate. They are thus situated upon passive continental margins that form the stable
portion of the plate, well away from the plate margins.
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Types of Coastline
Marginal sea coasts
Marginal sea coasts are those that develop along the shores of seas enclosed by
continents and island arcs. These coasts are typically bordered by wide shelves and
shallow seas with irregular shorelines. The coastal plains of marginal sea coasts vary
in width and may be bordered by hills and low mountains.
Thank you!
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