Section

Chapter 5
Problem Solving
:
Section 5.1
Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. define and differentiate inductive and deductive
reasoning;
2. give examples of inductive and deductive reasoning; 
3. use inductive and deductive reasoning in solving
problems;
4. identify counterexamples to show that the statements
are false; and
5. solve logic puzzles.
 What is a problem?

It is a question that motivates a

person to search for a solution.
1. It implies that one wants or
needs to solve the problem.
2. One has to search for a way to
find a solution.
What is problem solving?
 Problem Solving

It is finding solutions and not just

answers to problems.

SOLUTION = METHOD + ANSWER

 Inductive Reasoning
Definition 5.1.1 Inductive reasoning is the process
of making general conclusions founded on detailed or
specific examples.

This reasoning is used in applications that involve

prediction, forecasting, or behavior. The conclusion
formed is called a conjecture which may be true or
false. In this case, counterexamples are very useful
to prove the validity of conjectures.
 Examples of Inductive Reasoning

Example 5.1.1
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number
in each of the following lists.

a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?

b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
Solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the
preceding number. Thus, we predict that the
next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which
is 18.

b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The

second and the third numbers differ by 3. It
appears that the difference between any two
numbers is always more than the preceding
difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we
predict that the next number in the list will
be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.
Example 5.1.2

Consider the following procedure: Pick a

number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the
product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several
different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to
make a conjecture about the relationship
between the size of the resulting number and the
size of the original number.
We conjecture that following the given
procedure produces a number that is four
times the original number.
 Example 5.1.3 The following are also
examples of inductive reasoning.

a. Lance is a college student in XU. Lance is

handsome. Therefore, all XU college students are
handsome.

b. My math teacher last semester was a woman. This

semester, my math teacher is also a woman.
Therefore, all math teachers are women.
Counterexamples

A statement is a true statement provided that it is

true in all cases.

If you can find one case for which a statement is not

true, called a counterexample, then the statement
is a false statement
Example 5.1.4

Cite a counterexample to show that the following

statements are false.

a. The square of every number is positive.

b. The sum of any two odd numbers is odd.

Deductive Reasoning

Definition 5.1.2 Deductive reasoning is the

process of reaching a conclusion based on
general principles, assumptions, or
procedures.

The conclusion reached by this type of

reasoning is always valid and can be relied
on.
Example 5.1.5
Use deductive reasoning to show that the
following procedure produces a number that is
four times the original number.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number

by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2,
and subtract 3.
Solution
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8:

Add 6 to the product:

Divide the sum by 2:

Subtract 3:
 Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an

example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

a. All first year college students in the new curriculum take

Math 4. Jeff is a first year college student in the new
curriculum. Therefore, Jeff takes Math 4.

b. Simeon is a grandfather. Simeon is bald. Therefore, all

grandfathers are bald.
Solution

a. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a

general assumption, this argument is an example
of deductive reasoning.

b. This argument reaches a conclusion based on

specific examples, so it is an example of inductive
reasoning.
Logic Puzzle - a problem that can be solved
through deductive reasoning

Example 5.1.6
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a
different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
Solution
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the following
chart, write X1 (which stands for “ruled out by clue 1”) in the Banker
and the Dentist columns of Maria’s row.

From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2)
in the Editor column of Sarah’s row.
 We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get
home, and we know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get
home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker. Write X2 in the
Banker column of Sarah’s row.

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this condition.
There are now Xs for three of the four occupations in Sarah’s row;
therefore, Sarah must be the chef.
Place a in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the other
three people can be the chef. Write X3 for these conditions. There
are now Xs for three of the four occupations in Maria’s row;
therefore, Maria must be the editor.

Insert a to indicate that Maria is the editor, and write X3

twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is the editor.
 From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this condition.
See the following table. Since there are three Xs in the Banker
column, Sean must be the banker.

Place a in that box. Thus Sean cannot be the dentist. Write X4 in that
box. Since there are 3 Xs in the Dentist column, Brian must be the
dentist. Place a in that box. Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor,
Sarah is the chef, and Brian is the dentist.
Example 5.1.7
An elimination boxing tournament was organized. There
were 114 participants and so there were 57 matches in
the first round of the tournament. In the second round,
57 winners as qualifiers remaining were paired resulting
in 28 matches; one qualifier-fighter received a bye (that
is, did not have to fight in that round). The 29 qualifier-
fighters remaining were then paired, and so on.
a. How many matches in all were required to
determine a winner of the tournament?
b. How many matches would be required if n people
participated in the tournament to declare a winner?
(where n represents a fixed unspecified whole number)
Solution:
a. 1st round 57 matches, 57 winner-qualifiers
2nd round 28 matches, 29 winner-qualifiers
3rd round 14 matches, 15 winner-qualifiers
4th round 7 matches, 8 winner-qualifiers
5th round 4 matches, 4 winner-qualifiers
6th round 2 matches, 2 winner-qualifiers
7th round 1 match, 1 winner-qualifiers

To add all the matches from the first round to the last
round, 57+28+14+7+4+2+1 = 113 , 113 matches to be
held all in all to declare 1 winner in the tournament.
b. Using the information, we can deduce that if n people
participated in the tournament, there will be n – 1
matches before a winner can be declared.
Example 5.1.8
Five friends Sophia, Sean, Bianca, Brylle, and Kyle
are each allergic to something different: pollen,
shellfish, bee stings, cats, or nuts.
1. Sophia has a food allergy
2. Sean can play with his kitten for hours without
issue (or medicine).
3. Bianca’s allergy is not related to animals.
4. Brylle has seasonal allergies.
Can you figure out who is allergic to what?
Answer: Sophia is allergic to shellfish,
Sean to bee stings, Bianca to nuts, Brylle
to pollen, and Kyle to cats.
 Section

Section 5.2

Problem
Solving with
Patterns
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the students will be
able to:

1. determine the term of sequence using a

difference table;
2. determine the nth term formula of a
sequence;
3. solve Kenken puzzles; and
4. apply Polya’s problem-solving strategy.
 Solving terms of a sequence using
difference table
:
Definition 5.2.1 A difference table is a table made by
listing the terms of a sequence and its differences.

It includes the first differences, which is a sequence that

lists the differences of two consecutive terms of the
original sequence. For instance, the first term of the first
differences is the difference between the first and second
term of the original sentence, the second term of the first
difference is the difference between the second and third
term of the original sentence, and so forth.
Second-order differences, which is a sequence of
differences of the first differences, and other higher-
order differences can also be included in the
difference table.
An important thing to notice is that we find the
differences by subtracting the earlier term from the
later term of the sequence and not by subtracting the
term with the smaller value from the term with the
larger value. Thus, it is possible to have a negative
number in the difference table.
Example 5.2.1 Use a difference table to predict
the next term in the sequence shown below.
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ...

Solution
Sequence 3 6 9 12 15

First difference 3 3 3 3
In this case, the first differences are all the same.
Thus, if we use the above difference table to
predict the next number in the sequence, we
predict that 15 + 3 = 18 is the next term of the
sequence.
Example 5.2.2 Use a difference table to predict
the next term in the sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, ...
Solution
Construct a difference table as shown below.

Sequence 2 7 24 59 118 207 332

First Difference 5 17 35 59 89 125

Second Difference 12 18 24 30 36

Third Difference 6 6 6 6
The third differences, shown in blue in row (4),
are all the same constant, 6. Extending row (4)
so that it includes an additional 6 enables us
to predict that the next second difference will
be 36.
Adding 36 to the first difference 89 gives us
the next first difference, 125. Adding 125 to the
sixth term 207 yields 332.
Using the method of extending the difference
table, we predict that 332 is the next term in
the sequence.
In Example 5.2.1 we used a difference table to
predict the next term of a sequence.

In some cases we can use patterns to predict a

formula, called an nth-term formula, that
generates the terms of a sequence.
Example 5.2.2 Assume the pattern shown by
the square tiles in the following figures
continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the
number of tiles in the nth figure of the
sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of
the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320
tiles?
 a. Examine the figures for patterns.

Note that the second figure has two tiles on each of the
horizontal sections and one tile between the horizontal
sections.
The third figure has three tiles on each horizontal
sections and two tiles between the horizontal sections.
The fourth figure has four tiles on each horizontal
section and three tiles between the horizontal sections.
Thus, the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by
two groups of n plus a group of n less one.
That is,
an = 2n + (n – 1)
an = 3n – 1
b. The number of tiles in the eighth figure of the
sequence is 3(8) – 1 = 23.

c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have

320 tiles, we solve the equation 3n – 1 = 320.
3n – 1 = 320 Add 1 to each side
3n = 321 Divide each side by 3
n = 107
The 107th figure is composed of 320 tiles.
KenKen Puzzle
KenKen Puzzle is an arithmetic based logic
puzzle that was invented by the Japanese
mathematics teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in
2004. KenKen translates as knowledge
squared or awareness squared.
KenKen puzzles are similar to Sudoku puzzles
but they also require you to perform arithmetic
to solve the puzzle.
 Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle
For a 3x3 puzzle, fill in each box(square) of the grid with
one of the numbers 1, 2 or 3.
• Do not repeat a number
• The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares,
called cages must combine to produce the target
number in the top left corner of the cage using the
mathematical operation indicated.
• Cages with just one square should be filled in with the
target number.
• A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is
not in the same row or column.
Example 5.2.3 3 x 3 KenKen Puzzle
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy

One of the foremost recent

mathematicians to make a study
of problem solving was George Polya.
The basic problem-solving strategy
that Polya advocated consisted of
the following four steps.

1. Understand the problem.

- You must have clear
understanding of the problem.
- Can you restate the problem in
your own words?
2. Devise a plan.
- Successful problem solvers use a variety
of techniques when they attempt to solve
a problem.
3. Carry out a plan.
- Work carefully. Keep an accurate and
neat record of all your attempts.
- Realize that some of your initial plans will
not work so you have to modify your plan.
4. Review the solution.
- Once you have found a solution,
check the solution.
- Ensure that the solution is
consistent with the facts of the
problem.
In the next example, we apply
Polya’s four-step problem-solving
strategy to solve a problem involving
the number of routes between two
points.
Example 5.2.4 Consider the map shown
below. Jeff wishes to walk along the
streets from point A to point B. How
many direct routes can Jeff take?
Understand the Problem: We
would not be able to answer the
question if Jeff retraced his path or
traveled away from point B.

Thus, we assume that on a direct

route, he always travels along a
street in a direction that gets him
closer to point B.
Devise a Plan: The map in in the figure has
many extraneous details. Thus we make a
diagram that allows us to concentrate on the
essential information. See the figure below.
Because there are many routes, we consider
the similar but simpler diagrams shown below.

Simple street diagrams

The number at each street intersection represents

the number of routes from point A to that particular
intersection.
Look for patterns. It appears that the number of
routes to an intersection is the sum of the
number of routes to the adjacent intersection to
its left and the number of routes to the
intersection directly above.

For instance, the number of routes to the

intersection labeled 6 is the sum of the number
of routes to the intersection to its left, which is
3, and the number of routes to the intersection
directly above, which is also 3.
Carry Out the Plan: Using the pattern discovered
earlier in the example, we see from the figure below
that the number of routes from point A to point B is
20 + 15 = 35.

A street diagram with the number of routes to each

routes to each intersection labeled
Review the Solution: Ask yourself whether
a result of 35 seems reasonable.

If you were required to draw each route,

could you devise a scheme that would
enable you to draw each route without
missing a route or duplicating a route?
REFERENCES

1. Aufmann, R.N.(2018). Mathematics in the Modern World.

Rex Book Store, Inc.
2. Daligdig, R.M. (2019). Mathematics in the Modern
World. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
3. Carpio, J.N. and Peralta, B.D. (2018). Mathematics
in the Modern World. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.
4. Olejan, R.O., Veloria, E.V., Bonghanoy, G.B.,
Ondaro, J.E.,and Sumalinog, J.D. (2018). Mathematics
in the Modern World. MUTYA Publishing House, Inc.
5. Manlulu, E.A. and Hipolito, L.M. (2019). A Course Module
for Mathematics in the Modern World. Rex Book Store,
Inc.