1 Human Communication:
What and Why
Communication Defined
• Communication is a continuous, irreversible,
transactional process involving communicators
who occupy different but overlapping
environments and are simultaneously senders
and receivers of messages, many of which are
distorted by physical and psychological noise.
More concisely . . .
• Communication is human.
• One of the key distinguishing traits of humanity is that
we developed sophisticated languages and other
symbolic ways of making ourselves understood.
• Communication is a process.
• It is inaccurate to talk about “acts” of communication
as if they occur in isolation.
• Communication is symbolic.
• A symbol is an arbitrary sign used to represent a
thing, person, idea, event, or relationship in ways that
make communication possible.
Types of Communication
• Intrapersonal communication
• Dyadic/interpersonal communication
• Small-group communication
• Public communication
• Mass communication
Intrapersonal Communication
• Intrapersonal communication: Communication
that occurs within a single person
—“communicating with oneself.”
Dyadic/Interpersonal
Communication
• A dyad is a two-person unit; dyadic
communication occurs between two people.
• Interpersonal communication isn’t limited to
pairs. The parties consider one another as
unique individuals rather than as objects. It is
characterized by
• minimal use of stereotyped labels;
• unique, idiosyncratic social rules; and
• a high-degree of information exchange.
Small-Group Communication
• Small-group communication occurs in a group
whose size allows each member to participate
actively with the other members.
• E.g., family, group of colleagues, sports team
Public Communication
• Public communication takes place when a
group becomes too large for all members to
contribute.
• It is characterized by an unequal amount of
speaking and by limited verbal feedback.
Mass Communication
• Mass communication: The transmission of
messages to large, usually widespread
audiences via
• broadcast means (e.g. television),
• print (e.g. newspapers),
• multimedia (e.g. the Internet),
• other forms of media (e.g. movies).
Functions of Communication
• Communication satisfies most of our needs:
• Physical needs
• Identity needs
• Social needs
• Practical needs
Physical Needs
• Communication is necessary for physical health.
• The quality of personal relationships has a
significant bearing on health.
• Structural support: a person’s basic network of social
relationships, including friends, family, and romantic
partners
• Functional support: the quality of those relationships
Identity Needs
• We decide who we are based on how others
react to us.
• Even as others’ messages are working to shape
who we think we are, we are sending messages
intended to shape the way others see us.
Social Needs
• Communication satisfies a range of our social
needs:
• Pleasure
• Affection
• Inclusion
• Escape
• Relaxation
• Control
Practical Needs
• Communication is an important key to
effectiveness in a variety of everyday settings.
Modelling Communication
• Communication models describe what happens
when two or more people interact.
• There are two common models:
1. A linear model
2. A transactional model
A Linear Model
• In the linear model, communication is like giving an
injection: a sender encodes ideas and feelings into some
sort of message and then conveys them to a receiver,
who decodes them.
• An important element of this model is the communication
channel—the method by which the message is conveyed
(e.g. face-to-face contact).
• The channel you choose can make a big different in the effect of
your message.
• Mediated communication is sent via a medium other than
face-to-face interaction (e.g. email).
A Linear Model, cont’d
• Noise: distractions that interfere with the
accurate transmission and reception of a
message.
• Three main types:
1. External noise (also called physical noise): factors
outside the receiver that make it difficult to hear or
concentrate on the message.
2. Physiological noise: occurs when biological factors in the
receiver or sender (e.g. illness) interfere with accurate
reception.
3. Psychological noise: forces within a communicator that
interfere with the ability to express or understand a
message accurately.
A Linear Model, cont’d
A Linear Model, cont’d
A Linear Model, cont’d
• A linear model shows that communicators often
occupy different environments—fields of
experience that help them understand others’
behaviour.
• In communication terminology, environment
refers to both the physical setting in which
communication occurs and the personal
perspectives of the parties involved.
A Transactional Model
• Simultaneous sending and receiving
• At any given moment, we are capable of receiving,
decoding, and responding to another person’s behaviour,
while at the same time that other person is receiving and
responding to ours.
• Feedback—the discernible response of a receiver to a
sender’s message—can be verbal or non-verbal,
conscious or unconscious.
• Communication is fluid, not static
• Difficult to isolate a single discrete “act” of communication
from the events that precede and follow it.
A Transactional Model, cont’d
• Communication is relational, not individual
• It’s not something we do to others, but something we
do with them.
• Successful communication isn’t something that
depends just on the skill of one person.
• The way you communicate almost certainly varies
with different partners.
A Transactional Model, cont’d
Communication Competence
• Communication competence is the ability to
maintain a relationship on terms acceptable to
all parties.
• There is no “ideal” way to communicate.
• Cultural differences are important.
• Competent communicators are able to adapt their
style to suit the individual and cultural preferences of
others.
Communication competence,
cont’d
• Competence is situational: We are competent in
some areas and less so in others.
• Competence is relational: Behaviour that is
competent in one relationship isn’t necessarily
competent in others.
• Competence can be learned: Communication is
a set of skills that anyone can learn.
Communication competence,
cont’d
• Characteristics of competent communicators:
• A wide range of behaviours
• Ability to choose the most appropriate behaviour
• Skill at performing behaviours
• Empathy and perspective
• Cognitive complexity
• Self-monitoring
• Commitment to the relationship
Clarifying Misconceptions about
Communication
• Communication does not always require
complete understanding.
• Social rituals
• Attempts to influence others
• Deliberate ambiguity and deception
• Coordinate action
• Coordination: interaction in which participants interact
smoothly, with a high degree of satisfaction but without
necessarily understanding one another well.
Clarifying Misconceptions about
Communication, cont’d
• Communication is not always a good thing.
• Its value comes from the way it is used—but
communication itself is neither good nor bad.
• No single person or event causes another’s
reaction.
• Many factors play a role in how others will react to
your communication in a given situation.
• Communication will not solve all problems.
Clarifying Misconceptions about
Communication, cont’d
• Meanings rest in people, not in words.
• The ambiguity of words and non-verbal behaviour isn’t always
apparent.
• Communication is not simple.
• Communication skills are like athletic ability: even the most
inept of us can learn to be more effective with training and
practice, and those who are talented can always become
better.
• More communication is not always better.
• One key to successful communication is to share an adequate
amount of information in a skillful manner.
Summary
• Four communication contexts: intrapersonal,
dyadic, small-group, and public.
• Needs that communication satisfies: physical,
identity, social, and practical.
• Communication models: linear and transactional.
• Communication competence is situational.
• Competent communicators are able to choose
and perform appropriately from a wide range of
behaviours.
• Common misconceptions about communication.