MODULE 2:
ORGANISATION OF LIVING THINGS
PART 1
UNICELLULAR, COLONIAL AND
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS
◼ They are made of only one cell
◼ Responsible for all its own life processes
◼ Unicellular eukaryotic organisms can carry
out all the necessary life processes in a
more efficient manner than the prokaryotes
by means of specialised organelles.
◼ Directly exposed to the external
environment
◼ E.g. Diatom
Compare the difference between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms
UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS
◼ High surface-area-to-volume ratio due to
small size
◼ This enables all required substances
(nutrients, gases, water) to move across
the cell membrane into all parts of the
cell for its functioning.
◼ Wastes efficiently removed from all
parts of the cell by movement through
the cell membrane.
Compare the difference between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms
COLONIAL ORGANISMS
◼ Group of identical single-celled organisms
collectively called a colony.
◼ All individuals are capable of carrying out
each function necessary for life.
◼ Some colonial organisms contain cells
that have specialised functions that
coordinate with other cells in the colony.
Compare the difference between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms
COLONIAL ORGANISMS
Example: Volvox
[Link]
Compare the difference between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
◼ Made up of different types of cells
◼ Similar cells are grouped together
and perform specialised functions
that combine together for efficient
functioning of the organism.
◼ Cells can not live independently
unlike unicellular and colonial
organisms.
◼ E.g. Humans, plants
Compare the difference between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms
CELL STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
The structure of a cell is related to the particular
function of that specialised cell
◼Red blood cells are very small and have a
particular shape, allowing them to pass
through capillaries and maximise SA:V for
efficient gas exchange.
◼ Elongate palisade cells in a leaf are
flattened to give greater SA:V to
maximise absorption of oxygen and
water.
Compare the difference between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms
CELL STRUCTURE AND SPECIALISATION IS RELATED TO
FUNCTION
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells with no specialised structure
or function.
Specialised cells are formed when differentiation of the stem cells
occurs and they develop suitable structural features that allow
them to carry out their specific functions.
The type of cell that is formed is determined by the location of
the undifferentiated cells in the organism and the particular
genes that are switched on.
Stem cells can be either embryonic or adult stem cells. In plants,
specialised cells are formed by the differentiation of meristematic
tissue.
PART 2
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION
IN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
Atoms Molecules Organelles Cells Tissues Organs Systems Organism
Justify the hierarchal structural organisation of organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems and organisms
Examples
< Mitochondria
< Cardiac
Muscle cells
< Cardiac
Muscle tissue
< Heart
< Cardiovascular
system
< Human
Justify the hierarchal structural organisation of organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems and organisms
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
Cell Differentiation
Occurs when a young
unspecialized cell
develops into a more
mature state and
becomes specialized to
carry out particular
functions.
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
Cell Specialisation
Leads to a division of
labour in multicellular
organisms, allowing
certain tasks to be carried
out more efficiently.
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
BACKGROUND
There are four main types of animal tissue: epithelial tissue, connective
tissue, nervous tissue and muscle tissue.
There are many different forms of each of these types of tissues.
The four main types of plant tissue are meristematic tissue, vascular
tissue, dermal tissue and ground tissue.
The arrangement of cells into tissues, organs and systems in multicellular
organisms maximises the efficient functioning of the organisms.
The interaction and cooperation between cells, tissues, organs and
systems provides multicellular organisms with abilities that are beyond
the limitations of a single cell.
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- PLANT TISSUE
Meristematic
1 Cells are found at the tips of rots
and shoots and is where cell
division occurs to produce new
growth
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- ANIMAL TISSUE
1. Epithelial
2. Muscle
3. Nervous
4. Connective
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- ANIMAL TISSUE
Epithelial
1 Cells cover many surfaces and linings of
body cavities, acting as a protective layer
and a barrier against infection or water loss.
Examples:
- Inside mouth (cheek cells)
- Outer layer of skin
- Stomach lining
- Surrounding outside of organs
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- ANIMAL TISSUE
Muscle
2 Specialised to convert chemical energy from
ATP into mechanical energy for movement.
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- ANIMAL TISSUE
Neurons
3 Contain dendrites which pick up signals from
the brain and send them out to other parts
of the body using impulses (electrical
signals).
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- ANIMAL TISSUE
Neurons
3 Contain dendrites which pick up signals from
the brain and send them out to other parts
of the body using impulses (electrical
signals).
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- ANIMAL TISSUE
Connective
4 Consists of an extracellular matrix with cells
scattered throughout.
Examples:
- Collagen fibres provide strength
- Elastin provides flexibility
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- PLANT TISSUE
1. Meristematic
2. Vascular
3. Dermal
4. Ground
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- PLANT TISSUE
Vascular
2 Cells are responsible for the
transport of substances around
the plant and are found in the
roots, stems and leaves.
Example:
-Xylem
- Phloem
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- PLANT TISSUE
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- PLANT TISSUE
Dermal
3 Cells protect the plant and
controls interactions with its’
surroundings. They are found on
the outer surface of stems and
leaves
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- PLANT TISSUE
Ground
4 Cells make up the rest of the
internal plant structure,
specialized for food storage,
structural support and
photosynthesis.
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- ORGANS
Different types of tissues that are grouped together to
perform a particular function are called organs.
Heart
Organ that contains muscle tissue, connective tissue,
nerve tissue and epithelial tissue. These tissues are composed
of specialized cells. The tissues work together (as the heart)
to ensure it functions efficiently and effectively.
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
differentiation and specialisation
DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALISATION
- SYSTEMS
Different organs are grouped together to
form an organ system that is
responsible for a particular body
function
Cardiovascular System
Transport system responsible for the movement
of oxygen, nutrients and waste around the
body. This system consists of several organs
working together (heart, veins, arteries,
Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions to cell
capillaries, blood)
differentiation and specialisation
NUTRIENT AND GAS REQUIREMENTS
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE IN NUTRIENT AND GAS REQUIREMENTS BETWEEN AUTOTROPHS
AND HETEROTROPHS?
HETEROTROPH / AUTOTROPH REVIEW
Living things are divided into:
◼ Autotrophs:
Living things that produce own organic
materials
◼ Heterotrophs:
Living things that consume organic
material produced by others
TYPES OF AUTOTROPHS
Vascular Non-vascular
Most of plants on Earth. Don’t possess a transport
Have a transport system system. No Xylem or Phloem.
including Xylem and Phloem. Live in their nutrient source.
◼Leaf – absorbs sunlight, exchange gases,
transpiration and carry out photosynthesis
◼Stem – transport between roots and leaves
via xylem and phloem, structural support
FUNCTIONS OF PLANT STRUCTURES:
THE ROOT SYSTEM
Anchoring plant.
Absorbing water and
inorganic nutrients from the
soil.
Large surface area to absorb
efficiently
Investigate the function of structures in a plant
FUNCTIONS OF PLANT STRUCTURES:
THE ROOT SYSTEM
Large surface area is achieved through:
◼Branching of roots
◼Root hairs in younger part of root tips
◼Epidermal cells protrude outwards into
soil.
◼Flat nature of epidermal cells increase
exposed surface
Investigate the function of structures in a plant
FUNCTIONS OF PLANT STRUCTURES:
THE SHOOT SYSTEM
For Photosynthesis:
◼ Water moves into roots through
osmosis
◼ Mineral ions move into roots by
diffusion
◼ No photosynthesis in root cells (no
chloroplast/no sun)
◼ Aerobic respiration occurs
Investigate the function of structures in a plant
FUNCTIONS OF PLANT STRUCTURES:
THE STEM
Xylem
Absorbed from soil through the root system.
Transport of:
◼ Water
◼ Water-soluable nutrients
◼ Minerals
Investigate the function of structures in a plant
FUNCTIONS OF PLANT STRUCTURES:
THE STEM
Phloem
Conductive tissue composed of thin-walled
cells.
Movement from one part of plant to another.
Transport of:
◼ Sugars (as dissolved sucrose)
Investigate the function of structures in a plant
FUNCTIONS OF PLANT STRUCTURES:
THE STEM
Investigate the function of structures in a plant
SUMMARY
◼ The main functions of the root system are to anchor the plant in the soil and
absorb water and mineral ions.
◼ A large surface area is required for efficient absorption of water and mineral ions.
◼ This large surface area is achieved with flattened epidermal cells that possess fine
extensions called root hairs.
◼ Branching root systems increase the surface area for absorption. ?Water moves
from the soil into the root by osmosis.
◼ Mineral ions usually move into the root by diffusion, but if the concentration
gradient is too low they are moved in by facilitated diffusion or active transport.
◼ Root cells do not contain chloroplasts and do not photosynthesise but, as with all
living cells, they carry out aerobic cellular respiration.
◼ Oxygen gas diffuses into the root cells and carbon dioxide gas diffuses out
PART 2
GAS EXCHANGE
IN AUTOTROPHS AND HETEROTROPHS
Photosynthesis
Investigate the biochemical processes of photosynthesis, cell respiration and the removal of cellular
products and wastes in eukaryotic cells
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
◼The main function of the leaf is to absorb sunlight and carry
out photosynthesis to produce the organic compound
glucose.
◼The thin, flat structure and orientation of the leaf maximise
surface area for absorption of sunlight.
◼A waxy cuticle minimises water loss from the leaf.
◼Palisade cells containing many chloroplasts are lined up
vertically near the upper surface of the leaf to absorb
sunlight.
◼Spongy mesophyll cells are loosely and irregularly organised
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
◼ Transport tissue in the leaf is organised into veins. This provides
support as well as a pathway for the movement of water and the
products of photosynthesis.
◼ Guard cells, which are often more numerous on the underside of the
leaf, change shape to open and close ‘pores’ known as stomata.
◼ The gases oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the
inside and outside of the leaf through stomata.
◼ All plant cells carry out cellular respiration both at night and during
the day.
◼ Oxygen produced in photosynthesis is used in this process.
EXTRA STUFF-IMPORTANT
Radioisotopes are forms of an element that emit radiation, which can be
detected by a number of means. They act as tracers and are used to follow the
pathways of molecules involved in photosynthesis.
Radioisotopes were used to determine that oxygen produced in photosynthesis
came from the water molecule and not the molecule of carbon dioxide.
Carbon-14 added to the carbon dioxide supply traced the movement of the
glucose produced through the plant.
New technologies can be used to produce 3D images of the structures and
pathways involved in the movement of products of photosynthesis.
GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
3 Groups to research one of the structures and
report to the class.
◼Macroscopic Structures:
◼Respiratory System in animals
Investigate the gas exchange structures in animals and plants through the collection of primary and
secondary data and information
Microscopic Structures
◼ Gas exchange in plants occurs through the stomata and lenticels.
◼ When guard cells fill with water, they bend outwards and open the stoma,
allowing for gas exchange.
◼ When water is lost from the guard cells they straighten and close,
preventing both gas exchange and water loss.
◼ Plants have to balance their requirement for gas exchange and the
necessity for water conservation.
◼ Stomata open in light and close in the dark.
◼ Lenticels are pores through which gaseous exchange occurs in the woody
parts of plants, such as the trunks and branches of trees and woody
shrubs
Macroscopic Structures:
◼ The movement of gases between the external environment (alveolar air)
and internal environment (bloodstream) is known as gaseous exchange.
◼ Different animals possess different specialised structures to exchange
gases with their environment.
◼ Common characteristics of all respiratory surfaces are that they have:
– a large surface area
– thin, moist surfaces
– a close proximity to transport system
– the concentration gradient maintained for continued diffusion.
◼ Terrestrial animals have internal respiratory systems to reduce water loss.
Macroscopic Structures:
◼ Alveoli, located in the lungs, are the gaseous exchange surfaces in
mammals.
◼ Millions of alveoli in the lungs create a very large surface area for the
exchange of gases.
◼ The surface of the alveoli is very thin and moist. Many capillaries
surround each alveolus.
◼ Oxygen diffuses from where it is more concentrated in the alveoli into
the capillaries where it is less concentrated.
◼ Carbon dioxide is more concentrated in the capillary and diffuses out
into the alveolar space.
Macroscopic Structures:
◼ Fish have specialised structures called gills to absorb the small amount
of oxygen that is dissolved in water. Gills are well supplied with blood
capillaries.
◼ Insects exchange gases via pores called spiracles, which lead to tracheal
tubes, which then branch into smaller tubes called tracheoles.
◼ The tracheoles bring air directly to and from the cells of the insect.
Blood is not involved in the transport of gases in an insect
PART 3
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
◼A Dutch physician born in 1730,
discovered photosynthesis—how
plants turn light into energy. In this
process, chlorophyll in plant cells
absorbs light and uses it to convert
atmospheric carbon dioxide and
water to sugars, which the plants
consume for energy.
PART 4
THE MAMMALIAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Continued….
◼ Digestive enzymes enable the chemical breakdown
of large, complex molecules into the small molecules
that can then be absorbed into the transport systems
of the body.
◼ Complex molecules and their simple products
formed after digestion are listed below:
– Proteins are broken down into amino acids.
– Carbohydrates are broken down into simple
sugars, such as glucose.
– Lipids are broken down into glycerol and fatty
acids
MAMMAL SYSTEM
◼ Digestion is the breakdown of food
into particles small enough to be
absorbed into the bloodstream.
◼ Mechanical digestion is the physical
breakdown of the food into smaller
pieces to increase the surface area for
the action of enzymes.
◼ The teeth and the churning motion of
the stomach are the main ways in
which mechanical digestion occurs.
MAMMAL DIGESTION
◼Mechanical digestion occurs in the mouth by use of the
teeth and the tongue.
◼Chemical digestion begins in the mouth with the enzyme
salivary amylase breaking the complex carbohydrate starch
down into simpler sugars.
◼Mechanical digestion is continued in the stomach.
◼Pepsin begins the chemical digestion of proteins in the
chyme to form shorter peptide chains and the digestion of
nucleic acids to nucleotides
MAMMAL DIGESTION
◼ The small intestine is very long and folded and has
three regions: the duodenum, the jejunum and the
ileum.
◼ Most digestion is completed in the duodenum.
◼ The pancreas releases many different digestive
enzymes and bicarbonate ions.
◼ Bicarbonate ions neutralise the acidic chyme as it
enters the small intestine.
◼ Bile produced by the liver and stored in the gall
bladder emulsifies fat molecules to increase
surface area for breakdown by lipases.
MAMMAL DIGESTION
◼Other enzymes complete the chemical breakdown of larger
molecules.
◼Most absorption of products of digestion occurs in the jejunum.
illi are microscopic projections on the wall of the jejunum that
are one cell thick. There are blood capillaries and lymph vessels
in close contact with these cells. Small molecules diffuse or are
actively transported through the walls of the villi into the
capillary or lymph vessels to be distributed throughout the
body.
MAMMAL DIGESTION
◼Water and mineral salts are absorbed from the large intestine
into the bloodstream.
◼The remaining undigested material is called faeces and is
stored in the rectum before being eliminated from the body.
◼Digestive products absorbed into the body are used in many
different ways, including for structural purposes and for energy
storage
MAMMAL DIGESTION
◼Water and mineral salts are absorbed from the large intestine
into the bloodstream.
◼The remaining undigested material is called faeces and is
stored in the rectum before being eliminated from the body.
◼Digestive products absorbed into the body are used in many
different
< Large
ways, including for structural purposes and for energy
storage
<Small
PART 5
REQUIREMENTS OF AUTOTROPHS AND
HETEROTROPHS
REQUIREMENTS
◼ Autotrophs and heterotrophs require gases and nutrients to maintain
efficient and effective metabolic function.
◼ Both heterotrophs and autotrophs require inorganic and organic substances,
water and oxygen gas. Autotrophs also require carbon dioxide gas.
◼ Heterotrophs need to take in all of their nutrients. Autotrophs produce their
own organic nutrients using the energy from the sun, but need to obtain
water, mineral ions and the gases carbon dioxide and oxygen.
◼ Autotrophs manufacture their own glucose and other organic substances
from inorganic nutrients.
◼ Heterotrophs must obtain all of their organic nutrients by consuming
autotrophs or other heterotrophs
TRANSPORT
HOW DOES THE COMPOSITION OF THE TRANSPORT MEDIUM CHANGE AS IT MOVES
AROUND AN ORGANISM?
TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
Blue: the input
Red : the output
PART 1
PLANT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
PLANT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
Xylem: a specialised tissue for the transport of water and
dissolved mineral ions from the roots to the leaves. This
movement occurs in only one direction – upwards from
the roots
Phloem: Phloem is specialised tissue that transports
sugars and other products of photosynthesis from the
leaves, where they are produced, to the rest of the plant
where they are either used or stored
Investigate transport systems in animals and plants by comparing structures and components using physical
and digital models
XYLEM
◼ Transport systems in plants carry
water and mineral ions in one
direction only, from the roots to
the leaves, in the xylem tissue.
The products of photosynthesis
are delivered wherever required
around the plant in the phloem
tissue.
◼ Xylem tissue is composed of
xylem vessels and xylem
tracheids.
◼ Xylem vessels are long, thin,
continuous tubes composed of
dead tissue with lignin-
XYLEM
◼The transpiration-cohesion-tension theory currently
explains the movement of substances up the xylem vessels.
◼Water evaporates from the leaves and creates tension, which
pulls more water from the veins and then up the xylem
vessel.
◼Cohesion between water molecules and adhesion between
the water molecules and the walls of the xylem maintain the
column of water. When molecules of water are pulled up,
other molecules follow.
◼A small amount of root pressure forces the water already
TRANSPIRATION COHESION TENSION THEORY-
XYLEM
◼ This theory has at its core the evaporation of water
from the leaves (transpiration) creating a suction pull
of water up the stem from the roots. The movement
of this column of water up the stem due to the
evaporative pull of transpiration is known as the
transpiration stream
STOMATA
◼ Stomata are tiny pores found on the under
surface of the leaf.
◼ Guard cells are the only epidermal cells with
chloroplasts
◼ In daylight when the stomata opens, Carbon
dioxide can enter the leaf and Oxygen to exit.
◼ During the night, stomata are closed to conserve
energy and photosynthesis cannot take place in
the dark.
Investigate the exchange of gases between internal and external environments of plants and animals
STOMATA OPENING
Investigate the exchange of gases between internal and external environments of plants and animals
STOMATA CLOSING
Investigate the exchange of gases between internal and external environments of plants and animals
PHLOEM
PHLOEM
Source-sink theory; PHLOEM
◼ Glucose in plants are either stored as starch or converted to sucrose and
distributed to all parts of the plant. The distribution process is called
translocation and occurs in the phloem tissue.
◼ Substances transported in the phloem move in whichever direction is
required. Amino acids and some mineral nutrients are also carried with
sucrose in phloem. When sucrose reaches the cells, it may be converted
back to glucose for cellular respiration or to starch for storage.
Continued…
◼ Movement occurs from the
region of high pressure to the
region of low pressure. The high-
pressure region is in close
proximity to where the sucrose is
produced and is known as the
source. The low-pressure region is
where the sucrose is required and
is known as the sink.
PART 2
ANIMAL TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
ANIMAL TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
◼The transport systems of multicellular animals can be
divided into two types: open and closed. These
systems are similar in that they each contain the heart
as a driving mechanism, a fluid that transports
substances and a system of vessels
OPEN AND CLOSED CIRCULATORY
SYSTEMS
◼Open systems
◼An open circulatory system is made up of one or more
hearts and open-ended blood vessels. It is not sealed.
◼Closed systems
◼A closed circulatory system is found in all vertebrate
animals and is made up of blood vessels and a heart,
which form a sealed system
OPEN SYSTEMS
Open circulatory systems exchange only nutrients and wastes with cells of the organism’s body –
gases are exchanged via a different system.
When the long, pulsating vessel (the heart) contracts, it pumps the transport fluid away from it and
into shorter vessels near the head end of the body that empty into large spaces in the body cavity
called sinuses.
The transport fluid in an open circulatory system is called haemolymph and is a mixture of blood
and tissue fluid. Haemolymph flows into the sinuses in the body cavity, bathing the cells directly.
EXAMPLE
CLOSED SYSTEM
◼ This system transports nutrients and oxygen to all cells and carries wastes away from
cells.
◼ The transport fluid is blood, which is contained in vessels at all times and never flows
through body cavities.
◼ The heart may be two-chambered (as in fish), three-chambered (as in frogs and some
reptiles), or four-chambered (as in other reptiles, all birds and mammals).
◼ Any chemical substances required by cells leave the capillaries in a dissolved form and
move to the fluid called tissue fluid that surrounds the cells.
TWO TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN MAMMALS
BLOOD VESSELS
PART 3
CHANGES IN COMPOSITION
KEY POINTS
◼ Blood composition changes as it moves around the body and
depends on the organ it is moving through
◼ In all organs and tissues except the lungs, blood loses oxygen and
gains carbon dioxide. In the lungs, it gains oxygen and loses carbon
dioxide.
◼ In all organs except the small intestine, blood loses nutrients, such as
the products of digestion and gains wastes. Blood gains products of
digestion in the small intestine.
◼ In the kidneys, blood has less urea when it leaves, and the
concentration of water and salts will have changed according to the
needs of the body.
KEY POINTS
◼In the kidneys, the amount of urea is decreased because the
kidneys filter nitrogenous wastes out of the blood.
◼Blood leaving the kidneys has the lowest percentage of
nitrogenous wastes. Excess water and salts are removed
from the blood.
◼In the large intestine, water, salts and vitamins are absorbed
into the blood.
◼When blood passes through endocrine glands, hormones
are added to the blood