PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION,
SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, AND
RECOMMENDATION
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this section of Chapter 4, you will present all the results
you have come up together with your data gathered, review of
related literature and your theoretical framework and discuss
them comprehensively.
The process of writing the
01
Results and Discussion
section of a research paper
involves several steps.
ORGANIZE YOUR RESULTS START WITH A SUMMARY OF THE
LOGICALLY MAIN FINDINGS
Arrange your findings in a logical and Begin the Results section with a brief overview of
the key results without interpretation or discussion
coherent manner to ensure clarity and to provide a concise introduction to the detailed
ease of understanding. presentation.
THE PROCESS OF WRITING THE RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
PRESENT THE DETAILED
USE SUBHEADINGS OR
RESULTS CLEARLY PARAGRAPHS TO GROUP
Look for patterns, connections, and
relationships among the codes. Identify RELATED
Organize FINDINGS
your results using subheadings or
paragraphs to group and structure related findings,
recurring ideas, concepts, or topics that emerge
facilitating navigation and comprehension.
across the data. Group related codes together
to form potential categories or themes.
INTERPRET THE RESULTS AND COMPARE YOUR FINDINGS WITH
EXPLAIN THEIR IMPLICATIONS PREVIOUS RESEARCH
Transition to the Discussion section by
Discuss how your findings align with or differ
interpreting the findings and explaining their
from previous research, highlighting
meaning and implications in relation to the
similarities, differences, and any new insights
research question or existing literature.
your study brings.
THE PROCESS OF WRITING THE RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
CONSIDER ALTERNATIVE PROVIDE A SEAMLESS
EXPLANATIONS OR TRANSITION BETWEEN
COUNTERARGUMENTS SECTIONS
Ensure a smooth and logical transition between the
Explore alternative explanations or counterarguments Results and Discussion sections, using linking
to your findings, addressing conflicting evidence and sentences or paragraphs to connect the presentation
providing a balanced discussion that acknowledges of results with the interpretation and discussion.
different perspectives.
In order for you to come up with
01
rich and meaningful results and
discussion, as a researcher, you
should know how to analyze the
data in a most systematic and
iterative way.
THEMATIC
ANALYSIS
In order for you to come up with
rich and meaningful results and
discussion, as a researcher, you
should know how to analyze the
data in a most systematic and
iterative way.
THEMATIC
02
Thematic analysis is a flexible and
ANALYSIS
iterative approach to analyzing
qualitative data. While the exact steps
and process may vary depending on the
researcher and the specific study, here is
a general outline of the steps involved in
conducting thematic analysis:
FAMILIARIZATION WITH THE INITIAL CODING
Start by generating initial codes that capture
DATA meaningful concepts, ideas, or patterns within
Begin by immersing yourself in the qualitative data, the data. Assign descriptive or interpretive
such as interview transcripts, field notes, or audio labels to relevant segments of the data. Use a
recordings. Read and reread the data to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the content and
coding system or software to organize and
context. manage the codes.
STEPS IN DEVELOPING YOUR CODES, CATEGORIES,
AND THEMES.
SEARCHING FOR THEMES REVIEWING AND REFINING
Look for patterns, connections, and relationships
THEMES
Review and refine the identified themes. Examine
among the codes. Identify recurring ideas, the coherence and relevance of each theme to the
concepts, or topics that emerge across the data. research question or objectives. Check for overlaps
Group related codes together to form potential or redundancies among the themes. Consider
categories or themes. whether the themes adequately capture the essence
of the data.
DEFINING AND NAMING MAPPING AND ORGANIZING
Develop a thematic
THEMESmap or conceptual
THEMES framework that shows the relationships
Clearly define each theme by writing a concise
description or definition. Choose appropriate and between the themes. Determine the hierarchical
meaningful names for the themes that reflect structure, if any, among the themes. Consider
their content and essence. creating sub-themes or categories within the
broader themes.
STEPS IN DEVELOPING YOUR CODES, CATEGORIES,
AND THEMES.
REVIEWING AND VALIDATING WRITING THE NARRATIVE
THEMES
Step back and critically evaluate the themes. Use the identified themes to write a cohesive and
Examine the data and themes to ensure they comprehensive narrative that summarizes the key
accurately represent the participants' perspectives findings of the thematic analysis. Support the
and experiences. Seek input from other narrative with illustrative quotes or examples from
the data. Situate the findings within the broader
researchers or peers to enhance the validity and
literature and theoretical frameworks, if applicable.
reliability of the themes.
THEMATIC
02
Remember, thematic analysis is a flexible
ANALYSIS
approach, and the steps can be adapted
based on the research question, data, and
context. It is essential to approach the
analysis with an open mind and allow the
themes to emerge from the data, ensuring
a rigorous and systematic process.
THEMATIC
InANALYSIS
thematic analysis, codes, themes,
and categories are different levels of
analysis used to organize and make
sense of qualitative data. Here's a
breakdown of the differences between
these terms:
CODES
Codes are the most basic units of analysis in thematic analysis. They are
labels or tags assigned to specific portions of the data that capture
meaningful concepts, ideas, or patterns. Codes are applied to segments
of text or data (e.g., interview transcripts, field notes) that are relevant
to the research question or objectives.
Codes can be descriptive (e.g., "physical limitations," "emotional
distress") or interpretive (e.g., "sense of isolation," "coping strategies").
The purpose of coding is to systematically label and organize the data,
making it easier to identify patterns and themes.
CATEGORIES
Categories, also known as sub-themes, are intermediate levels of
analysis that group related codes together. They represent broader
concepts or topics that emerge from the codes. Categories are created
by clustering similar codes to identify overarching themes or patterns in
the data. They provide a higher level of abstraction and help to organize
and structure the analysis process.
For example, within the theme of "Coping Strategies," categories could
include "Physical Activities," "Mindfulness Techniques," and "Social
Support."
THEMES
Themes are the highest level of analysis in thematic analysis. They
represent overarching patterns or ideas that capture the essence of the
data. Themes are derived from the categories or clusters of codes. They
provide a conceptual framework for understanding the central ideas or
phenomena that emerge from the data. Themes should be coherent,
meaningful, and relevant to the research question or objectives. Each
theme encapsulates multiple related categories or sub-themes and
provides a comprehensive representation of the data.
For example, a theme in the context of chronic pain research could be
"Impact on Quality of Life," which encompasses categories related to
physical limitations, emotional distress, and social isolation.
THEMATIC
ANALYSIS
In summary, codes are the most granular units of
analysis that label specific portions of the data,
categories group related codes together, and
themes represent overarching patterns or ideas
that capture the essence of the data. The process
of moving from codes to categories and then to
themes allows researchers to systematically
analyze and interpret qualitative data,
uncovering meaningful patterns and generating
a rich understanding of the phenomenon under
study.
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: DISCUSSION
Theme 1: Emotional Impact of the Pandemic
This theme focuses on the emotional challenges experienced by individuals
during the pandemic. It encompasses fear, anxiety, and emotional exhaustion.
Category 1: Fear and Anxiety
Fear and anxiety were prominent emotions expressed by the participants. They
were deeply concerned about the risk of infection and the potential
consequences for themselves and their families. One participant shared, "I
constantly worry about contracting the virus and bringing it home to my
family" (Participant 1). This quotation highlights the personal fear and the
burden of responsibility that healthcare workers felt in relation to the safety of
their loved ones.
EXAMPLE: DISCUSSION
Category 2: Emotional Exhaustion
The participants described the emotional exhaustion resulting from the
demands of their work during the pandemic. They spoke about the
overwhelming workload and the toll it took on their mental and emotional well-
being. One participant expressed, "The workload has become unbearable. We
are stretched thin and constantly working overtime" (Participant 4). Witnessing
the suffering and death of patients further added to their emotional burden. A
participant shared, "Seeing so many people suffer and losing patients regularly
weighs heavily on me" (Participant 5). These quotes demonstrate the emotional
toll and the heavy responsibility healthcare workers experienced during the
pandemic.
SUMMARY OF
THE FINDINGS
03 The summary of findings or conclusion
part of a research paper serves to
provide a concise overview of the key
findings and their implications.
RESTATE THE RESEARCH SUMMARIZE THE MAIN FINDINGS
OBJECTIVES Provide a summary of the main findings of
Begin by restating the research objectives or your study. Highlight the key results and
research questions that guided your study. insights that emerged from your data analysis.
This helps to remind the reader of the main Present the findings in a logical order, focusing
focus of your research. on the most significant findings that address
your research objectives.
STEPS IN WRITING YOUR SUMMARY OF THE
FINDINGS
DISCUSS IMPLICATIONS AND
CONNECT FINDINGS TO THE
RESEARCH QUESTIONS SIGNIFICANCE
Discuss how your findings address or Reflect on the implications of your findings. Discuss
contribute to answering the research questions the practical, theoretical, or policy implications of
or objectives. Explain how your study adds to your research and how it contributes to the field.
the existing body of knowledge or fills gaps in Highlight the significance and relevance of your
the literature. findings in addressing the research problem.
CONSIDER LIMITATIONS SUGGEST AREAS FOR FURTHER
Acknowledge any limitations or constraints of RESEARCH
your study. Discuss potential sources of bias
or limitations that may have influenced your Identify areas for further research or potential
findings. This shows transparency and helps avenues for future studies. Discuss any
contextualize the scope and generalizability of unresolved questions or areas that your
your results. research has uncovered for further exploration.
STEPS IN WRITING YOUR SUMMARY OF THE
FINDINGS
PROVIDE A FINAL CONCLUSION
Conclude your summary of findings by
summarizing the overall significance and
contribution of your research. Emphasize the
main takeaways and the broader implications of
your study.
SUMMARY OF THE
FINDINGS
Remember to keep your
summary of findings or
conclusion concise, clear, and
focused. Avoid introducing new
information or going into
extensive detail. The goal is to
provide a brief and impactful
summary that highlights the
main findings and their
implications.
RECOMMENTDATION
The recommendation part of a research paper should include clear and specific
recommendations, supported by justification and evidence from the study.
Consider the perspectives of relevant stakeholders and ensure feasibility and
practicality in implementation. Address potential challenges and provide strategies
to overcome them. Emphasize the importance of monitoring and evaluation.
Consider any ethical considerations that may arise.