Chandigarh Group of Colleges, Landran
Networking Devices
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Introduction
• LANs do not normally operate in isolation but
they are connected to one another or to the Internet.
• To connect LANs, connecting devices are needed
Functions of network devices
• Separating (connecting) networks or expanding
network
• e.g. repeaters, hubs, bridges, routers,switches,
gateways
• Remote access
• e.g. 56K Modems and ADSL modems
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Networking Devices
• Repeaters
• Hubs
• Switches
• Bridges
• Routes
• Gateways
• Network Interface Cards (NICs)
• Wireless access points
• Modems
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CONNECTING DEVICES
• Connecting devices are divided into five
different categories based on the layer in
which they operate in a network.
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HUB
• A hub is used as a central point of connection among
media segments.
• A Hub is a hardware device used to connect several
computers together. A hub contains multiple ports
• Cables from network devices plug in to the ports on
the hub.
Types of HUBS :
– A passive hub is just a connector. It connects the wires
coming from different branches.
The signal pass through a passive hub without regeneration
or amplification.
Connect several networking cables together
– Active hubs or Multiport repeaters- They regenerate or
amplify the signal before they are retransmitted.
Hubs
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• Acts on the physical layer
• Operate on bits rather than frames
• Also called multiport repeater
• Used to connect stations adapters in a physical star topology but
logically bus
• Connection to the hub consists of two pairs of twisted pair wire one
for transmission and the other for receiving.
• Hub receives a bit from an adapter and sends it to all the other
adapters without implementing any access method.
• does not do filtering (forward a frame into a specific destination or
drop it) just it copy the received frame onto all other links
• The entire hub forms a single collision domain, and a single
Broadcast domain
– Collision domain: is that part of the network (set of NICs) when two or
more nodes transmit at the same time collision will happen.
– Broadcast domain: is that part of the network (set of NIC) where each
NIC can 'see' other NICs' traffic broadcast messages.
• Multiple Hubs can be used to extend the network length
• For 10BaseT and 100BaseT the maximum length of the connection
between an adapter and the hub is 100 meters the maximum length
between any two nodes is 200 m = maximum network length
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Hub Advantages:
– simple, inexpensive device
– Multi-tier provides graceful degradation: portions of the LAN continue to operate if
one hub malfunctions
– As an active hubs regenerate signals, it increases the distance that can be spanned by
the LAN (up to 100 meters per segment).
– Hubs can also be connected locally to a maximum of two other hubs, thereby
increasing the number of devices that can be attached to the LAN.
– Active hubs are usually used against attenuation, which is a decrease in the strength of
the signal over distance.
Hub Disadvantages:
– Bandwidth is shared by all hosts i.e. 10Mbs shared by 25 ports/users.
– Can create bottlenecks when used with switches.
– Have no layer 3 switching capability.
– Most Hubs are unable to utilise VLANS.
– Individual segment collision domains become one large collision domain (reduce
the performance)
– Can’t interconnect different Ethernet technologies(like 10BaseT & 100BaseT) because
no buffering at the hub
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Chandigarh Group of Colleges, Landran
Repeater
• A physical layer device the acts on bits not on frames or packets
• Can have two or more interfaces
• When a bit (0,1) arrives, the repeater receives it and regenerates it, the
transmits it onto all other interfaces
• Used in LAN to connect cable segments and extend the maximum cable
length extending the geographical LAN range
– Ethernet 10base5 – Max. segment length 500m – 4 repeaters (5
segments) are used to extend the cable to 2500m)
– Ethernet 10Base2- Max. segment length 185m - 4 repeaters (5
segments) are used to extend the cable to 925m
• Repeaters do not implement any access method
– If any two nodes on any two connected segments transmit at the same
time collision will happen
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Figure 15.3 Function of a repeater
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Figure 15.2 A repeater connecting two segments of a LAN
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Disadvantage associated with Repeater
• It can't filter network traffic. Data, sometimes referred to as
bits, arriving at one port of a repeater gets sent out on all other
ports
• Data gets passed along by a repeater to all other LAN
segments of a network regardless of whether it needs to go
there or not.
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Hubs Vs. Repeaters
• Hub are different than repeaters in the following:
– The provide network management features by gathering
information about the network and report them to a
monitoring host connected to the hub so some statistics
about the network (bandwidth usages, collision rates,
average frame sizes) can be generated.
– If an adapter is not working the hub can disconnect it
internally and the network will not be affected.
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Bridge
• Acts on the data link layer (MAC address level)
• Used to divide (segment) the LAN into smaller LANs segments, or to connect
LANs that use identical physical and data link layers
• Each LAN segment is a separate collision domain
• Bridge does not send the received frame to all other interfaces like hubs and
repeaters, but it performs filtering which means:
– Whether a frame should be forwarded to another interface that leads to the destination or
dropped
• This is done by a bridge table (forwarding table) that contains entries for the
nodes on the LAN
– The bridge table is initially empty and filled automatically by learning from
frames movements in the network
– An entry in the bridge table consists of : Node LAN (MAC) Address, Bridge
Interface to which the node is connected to, the record creation time
• A bridge runs CSMA/CD before sending a frame onto the link not like the hub or
repeater
• Bridge frame handling is done in software
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Bridges (Switches) Vs. Hubs
A Hub sending a packet form F to C.
A Switch sending a packet from F to C
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Figure 15.5 A bridge connecting two LANs
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How Bridges Work
• Bridges work at the Media Access Control Sub-
layer of the OSI model
• Routing table is built to
record the segment no.
of address
• If destination address is
in the same segment as
the source address, stop
transmit
• Otherwise, forward to
the other segment
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Types of Bridge
• Transparent Bridge
Also called learning bridges
Build a table of MAC addresses as frames arrive
Ethernet networks use transparent bridge
Duties of transparent bridge are : Filtering frames, forwarding and blocking
• Source Routing Bridge
Used in Token Ring networks
Each station should determine the route to the destination when it wants to send a frame and
therefore include the route information in the header of frame.
Addresses of these bridges are included in the frame.
Frame contains not only the source and destination
address but also the bridge addresses.
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Advantages And Disadvantages Of Bridges
• Advantages of using a bridge
– Extend physical network
– Reduce network traffic with minor segmentation
– Creates separate collision domains
– Reduce collisions
– Connect different architecture
• Disadvantages of using bridges
– Slower that repeaters due to filtering
– Do not filter broadcasts
– More expensive than repeaters
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Differences Between Bridges and Repeaters
Repeater Bridge
OSI Layer Physical Layer Data Link Layer
Data Regeneration Regenerate data at Regenerate data at
signal level Packet level
Reduce Network No Yes
Traffic
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Switches
• Switches operate at the Data Link layer (layer 2) of
the OSI model
• Can interpret address information
• Switches resemble bridges and can be considered as
multiport bridges
• By having multiports,
can better use limited
bandwidth and prove
more cost-effective than
bridge
Cisco Catalyst 2900 switch
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• Switches divide a network into several isolated channels
• Packets sending from 1 channel will not go to another if not
specify
• Each channel has its own capacity and need not be shared with
other channels
Forward only to the port that connects to the destination device
knows MAC address
Match the MAC address in the data it receives
Hub 3.3Mbps
10Mbps
Switch 3.3Mbps
3.3Mbps
10Mbps
10Mbps
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10Mbps
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Switches
• Allow full duplex Ethernet
– Nodes only communicate with switch, never directly to
each other
– Use twisted pair or fiber optic cabling, using separate
conductors for sending and receiving data.
• collision pair is used to transmit data
• It was half duplex before – one device can transmit at
one given time,
– double the capacity, 100Mbps become 200Mbps
• Most LAN are mixed with hubs and switches.
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Switch routing method
Packet-based switches use one of the following method to route
packet
• Cut-through
• Read the first 14 bytes of each packet, then transmit
• Much faster
• Cannot detect corrupt packets
• Can propagate the corrupt packets to the network
• Best suited to small workgroups
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Store and Forward Mode
• Read the whole packet before transmit
• Slower than the cut-through mode
• More accurate since corrupt packets can be detected
using the FCS
• More suit to large LAN since they will not propagate
error packets
• Facilitate data DB
transfer between 100Mbps
segments of
different speed
10Mbps 25
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Advantages of Switches
• Switches divide a network into several isolated channels
(or collision domains)
• Reduce the possibility of collision
• Collision only occurs when two devices try to get access
to one channel
• Can be solved by buffering one of them for later access
• Each channel has its own network capacity
• Suitable for real-time applications, e.g. video
conferencing
• Since isolated, hence secure
• Data will only go to the destination, but not others
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Limitations of Switches
• Although contains buffers to accommodate bursts of
traffic, can become overwhelmed by heavy traffic
• Device cannot detect collision when buffer full
• CSMA/CD scheme will not work since the data channels
are isolated, not the case as in Ethernet
• Some higher level protocols do not detect error
• E.g. UDP
• Those data packets are continuously pumped to the
switch and introduce more problems
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Routers
– Operates at network layer = deals with packets not frames
– Connect LANs and WANs with similar or different protocols
together
– Switches and bridges isolate collision domains but forward
broadcast messages to all LANs connected to them. Routers
isolate both collision domains and broadcast domains
– Acts like normal stations on a network, but have more than one
network address (an address to each connected network)
– Deals with global address ( network layer address (IP)) not local
address (MAC address)
– Routers Communicate with each other and exchange routing
information
– Determine best route using routing algorithm by special software
installed on them
– Forward traffic if information on destination is available
otherwise discard it (not like a switch or bridge)
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Routers
• Advantages
Routers provide sophisticated routing, flow control, and traffic
isolation
Routers are configurable, which allows network manager to
make policy based on routing decisions
Routers allow active loops so that redundant paths are availabl
• Disadvantages
Routers are protocol-dependent devices that must understand
the protocol they are forwarding.
Routers can require a considerable amount of initial
configuration.
Routers are relatively complex devices, and generally are more
expensive than bridges
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Figure 15.11 Routers connecting independent LANs and WANs
Routers
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How Routers Work
• As packets are passed from routers to routers, Data Link
layer source and destination addresses are stripped off
and then recreated
• Enables a router to route a packet from a TCP/IP
Ethernet network to a TCP/IP token ring network
• Only packets with known network addresses will be
passed - hence reduce traffic
• Routers can listen to a network and identify its busiest
part
• Will select the most cost effective path for transmitting
packets
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How Routing Table is formed
• Routing table is formed based on communications
between routers using “Routing Protocols”
• Routing Protocols Routable Protocol
• Routing Protocols
Routers communicate
collect data about within themselves
current network
status and
contribute to
selection of the best
path
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An Institutional Network Using Hubs,
Ethernet Switches, and a Router
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switch switch switch
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Static and Dynamic Routers
Static Routers Dynamic Routers
Manual configuration Manual configuration of the first
of routes route. Automatic discovery of new
routes
Always use the same Can select the best route
route
More secure Need manual configuration to
improve security
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Chandigarh Group of Colleges, Landran
Types of Routers
1. Wired
Wired routers are typically box-shaped devices that connect directly to computers via
"hard-lined" or wired connections. One connection port on a wired router allows
the router to connect to a modem for receiving Internet data packs, while another set of
ports allows a wired router to connect to computers for distributing Internet data
packets. Some wired routers also provide ports for distributing data packets to fax
machines and telephones. One of the most common varieties of wired router is
the Ethernet broadband router.
2. Wireless
Similar to a wired router, a wireless router connects directly to a modem via a cable for
receiving Internet data packets. However, instead of relying on cables for distributing
data packets to computers, wireless routers distribute data packets using one or more
antennae. The routers convert the data packets, which are written in binary code -- or
series of 1s and 0s -- into radio signals, which the antennae broadcast wirelessly.
A computer with a wireless receiver can then receive these radio signals and convert
them back into binary code.
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3. Core Routers vs. Edge Routers
A core router is a wired or wireless router that distributes Internet data packets
within a network, but does not distribute data packets between multiple
networks. In contrast, an edge router is a wired or wireless router that
distributes Internet data packets between one or more networks, but does not
distribute data packets within a network.
4. Virtual Router
Unlike a physical wired or wireless router, a virtual router is an abstract,
intangible object that acts as a default router for computers sharing a network.
The router functions using the Virtual RouterRedundancy Protocol (VRRP),
which becomes active when a primary, physical router fails or otherwise
becomes disabled.
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Distinguishing Between Bridges and Routers
• Bridges forward everything they
don’t recognize
• Routers select the best path
• Routers are layer 3 devices
which recognize network
address
• Bridges are layer 2 devices
which look at the MAC
sublayer node address
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Chandigarh Group of Colleges, Landran
Ethernet LAN Adapter
• Ethernet is the name of the most commonly used LAN today.
A LAN (Local Area Network) is a network of computers that
covers a small area like a room, an office, a building or a
campus. It is used in contrast with WAN (wide area network)
which spans for much larger geographical areas. Ethernet is a
network protocol that controls how data is transmitted over a
LAN. Technically it is referred to as the IEEE 802.3 protocol.
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GATEWAY
• Device that connects dissimilar networks.
• Operates at the highest level of abstraction.
• Expands the functionality of routers by performing
data translation and protocol conversion.
• Needed to convert Ethernet traffic from LAN to
San(Systems Network Architecture)traffic legacy
system.
• Then routes the SNA traffic to the mainframe.
• When Mainframe answers, Reverse process occurs.
• Establishes an intelligent connection between a local
network and external networks with completely
different structures.
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Remote Access Devices
Modems
• Allow computers to
communicate over a
telephone line
• Enable communication
between networks or
connecting to the world
beyond the LAN
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• Cannot send digital signal directly to telephone line
• Sending end: MODulate the computer’s digital signal
into analog signal and transmits
• Receiving end: DEModulate the analog signal back into
digital form
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1 0 1 1 1
Amplitude
Modulation
Frequency
Modulation
Phase
Modulation
Normal sine
wave
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• Modems typically have the following I/O interface:
• A serial RS-232 communication interface
• An RJ-11 telephone-line interface (a telephone
plug)
RS-232 RJ-11 46
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Modem Standards
Standard bps Introduced Remarks
V.22bis 2,400 1984
V.32 9,600 1984
V.32bis 14,400 1991
V.32terbo 19,200 1993 Communicate only with
another V.32terbo
[Link] 28,800 1993 ([Link])
V.34 28,800 1994 Improved [Link]
V.42bis 115,200 1995 With compression
V.90 56,000 1998 Resolved competition
between X2 and Flex56k
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Modem Performance Measures
• Baud rate - the number of symbol change per second
on the transmission line
• Bit per second (bps) - number of bits transmitted per
second
• In the past, they are identical
• With compression technique, a change of signal can
mean more than one bits
• 28.8kbaud can mean 115.2kbps when using V.42bis
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How V.90 Works
• Modem speed is determined by channel noise level
• The noise level of traditional PSTN (public switch
telephone network) limits data rate to ~35kbps
• 56K modem technology assumes only one analog link
hence noise level is much lower
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Types of Modem - Asynchronous Modems
• No clocking devices
• Commonly used in telephone networks
• Data is transmitted in a serial stream. Each character
is turned into a string of 8 bits
• Each of these characters is separated by one start bit
and one or two stop bits
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Types of Modem - Synchronous Modems
• Need clocking devices
• Data are transmitted in blocks
• Used in digital networks
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Comparison
• Asynchronous modems are relatively simple and
economic
• Large overhead - can be up to 20 to 27% of the data
traffic
• Error control is done by using parity bit or higher
layer protocols, e.g. MNP, V.42
• Synchronous modems are relatively complicated and
expensive
• Seldom use in home market
• Less overhead means higher efficiency
• More sophisticated error control protocol is required
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Network cards
• Called Network Interface Cards (NIC)
– Attached to external port
– PC card
– Internal Network card
• System bus compatibility
– Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
– Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)
• System Resources – device conflict
• Media compatibility
– Twisted pair, coaxial or fiber-optic connection?
• Driver
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ISDN adapters
• Integrated Services Digital Networking (ISDN) is a
remote access and WAN technology that can be used
in place of a Plain old telephone systems dial-up link
• Greater speeds than modem, pick up and drop the line
considerable faster.
• Require ISDN terminal adapter
– Although digital signal, different format with the those
used on LAN.
– Create multiple communication channels on a single line.
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Device Function/Purpose Key Points
Hub Connects devices on a A hub does not perform any tasks besides signal
twisted-pair network. regeneration.
Switch Connects devices on a A switch forwards data to its destination by using the MAC
twisted-pair network. address embedded in each packet.
Bridge Divides networks to reduce A bridge allows or prevents data from passing through it by
overall network traffic. reading the MAC address.
Router Connects networks together. A router uses the software-configured network address to
make forwarding decisions.
Gateway Translates from one data Gateways can be hardware or software based. Any device
format to another. that translates data formats is called a gateway.
CSU/DSU Translates digital signals CSU/DSU functionality is sometimes incorporated into
used on a LAN to those used other devices, such as a router with a WAN connection.
on a WAN.
Network card Enables systems to connect Network interfaces can be add-in expansion cards,
to the network. PCMCIA cards, or built-in interfaces.
ISDN terminal Connects devices to ISDN ISDN is a digital WAN technology often used in place of
adapter lines. slower modem links. ISDN terminal adapters are required
to reformat the data format for transmission on ISDN links.
System area network Used in server clusters to System area network cards are high-performance devices
card provide connectivity between capable of coping with the demands of clustering
nodes. applications.
WAP Provides network capabilities A WAP is often used to connect to a wired network, thereby
to wireless network devices. acting as a link between wired and wireless portions of the
network.
Modem Provides serial Modems modulate the digital signal into analog at the
communication capabilities sending end and perform the reverse function at the 55
across phone lines. receiving end.
