Chapter Two

Hydraulic Structures

1
 Reservoirs and Dam structures
Definition:- A dam may be defined as an obstruction or barrier built
across a stream or a river.
The lake of water which is formed upstream is often called reservoir.

Reservoir
Downstream
Upstream

Dam
A reservoir is a large, artificial lake or any water
pool created by constructing a dam across a river.
2
 What is a Dam?
A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious
material built across a river or a stream to retain the water.

It prevents the flow of water and accumulates it in a deep

storage reservoir.

The stored water can be used for the purpose of ;

 Irrigation
 Power generation
 Water supply
 Flood control
 Navigation
 Recreation
3
 Structure of Dam
Upstream Crest Down stream
MWL (Max. water level)

Spillway
(inside dam)
NWL (Normal water level)

Free board

Sluice way
Gallery

Heel Toe 4
 Structure of Dam
 Heel: contact with the ground on the upstream side.

 Toe: contact on the downstream side.

 Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of the dam rest.

 Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam for checking
operations.

 Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water
of the reservoir to downstream side.

 Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used
to clear the silt accumulation in the reservoir side.
5
 Classification of Dams
 Dams are classified according to several considerations
as indicated below.

1 • Based on dam function

2 • Based on material construction

3 • Based on hydraulic behavior

4 • Based on structural behavior

6
 1 • BASED ON DAM FUNCTION
Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season
when there is a large flow in the river. Water is stored for later use in dry
season.
Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting
water of the river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit).

Detention dams: A detention dam retards the flow in the river on its
downstream during floods by storing some flood water.

Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel,
and drift wood flowing in the river with water.

Coffer dams: A coffer dam is a temporary dam constructed to divert water for
7
facilitating construction. 
 • BASED ON MATERIAL
2 CONSTRUCTION
Rigid Dam: It is constructed with rigid material such as stone,
masonry, concrete, steel, or timber. Steel dams and timber dams are
constructed only for small heights.

Non-rigid Dam: It is constructed with non-rigid material such as earth,

tailings, rockfill etc.

 Earthen dam – gravel, sand, silt, clay etc.

 Tailings dam – waste or refuse obtained from mines

 Rockfill dam – rock material supporting a water tight material on the

8
u/s face.
 • BASED ON HYDRAULIC
3 BEHAVIOR

Overflow Dam: It is constructed with a crest to permit

overflow of surplus water that cannot be retained in the
reservoir. (e.g. Nolichucky Dam USA)

Non-Overflow Dam: It is constructed such that water is not

allowed to overflow over its crest.

(e.g. Kurobe Dam JAPAN)

9
 • BASED ON STRUCTURAL
4 BEHAVIOR

EMBANKMENT
DAM
GRAVITY DAM
BUTTRESS DAM
ARCH DAM
10
 EMBANKMENT DAM
 It is a non-rigid dam which resists the
forces acting on it by its shear strength
and up to some extent by its own weight

 Earth dams are constructed where the

foundation or the underlying material
are weak to support the masonry dam.

 They are trapezoidal in shape and

mainly built with clay, sand and gravel,
hence they are also known as Earth fill
dam or Rock fill dam.
11
 Gravity Dams
 Gravity dams are rigid concrete dams which ensure stability against all
loads by virtue of their weight alone.

 They transfer all the loads to the foundation and hence are built when the
foundation is strong rock. A typical section of a gravity dam is shown.

12
 GRAVITY DAM
 It is a masonry or concrete dam which resists
the forces acting on it by its own weight.

 These dams are heavy and massive wall-like

structures of concrete in which the whole
weight acts vertically downwards. Its c/s is
approximately triangular in shape.

 As the entire load is transmitted on the small

area of foundation, such dams are constructed
where rocks are competent and stable.

13
 BUTTRESS DAM
 It is a masonry or concrete dam which
resists the forces acting on it by series of
structural supports called buttresses.

 Buttresses transmit force from wall of dam

to wider area of ground. These buttresses
are in the form of triangular or multiple
arch masonry or reinforced concrete walls.

 This type of structure can be considered

even if the foundation rocks are little
weaker.
14
 ARCH DAM
 It is a curved masonry or concrete dam,
convex upstream, which resists the forces
acting on it by arch action.

 Arch dams are built across narrow and deep

river, this shape helps to transmit the major
part of the water load to the abutments. So this
shape requires strong abutments.

 Arch dams are cheaper dams, because they

give good strength with less material required.

15
 Assignment_1
Write short note on site selection of Dam.
“Not exceeding two pages”

16
Following are forces acting on Dam

1) Water Pressure
2) Weight of the Dam
3) Uplift Pressure
4) Silt Pressure
5) Wave Pressure
6) Ice Pressure
7) Earthquake Pressure

17
 1. Water Pressure

 It is the major external force acting on a dam.

 The water pressure on the upstream face depends on

the water surface level in the reservoir and acts
horizontally. In case the dam has a batter in the
upstream side, the load of water over the batter is also
present and acts vertically.

18
 Cont.…
 The horizontal water pressure acts at a height of H/3
𝒘 𝑯𝟐
from base of the dam, and is given by 𝑷𝟏 =
𝟐
 The vertical water pressure acts on the length ‘b’ portion of the
base. This vertical pressure is given by
𝒃
𝑷𝟐 = ሺ𝒘 × 𝒉𝟐 × 𝒃ሻ+ (𝒘 × 𝒉𝟏 × )
𝟐

19
 Cont.…
Similarly, the water pressure on the downstream face is due to
the tail water and acts horizontally while the weight of water on
the downstream face acts vertically.

20
 2. Weight of the Dam
 Weight of the dam is the major resisting force.

 Total weight of the dam acts at the center of gravity of its

section. Unit length of the dam is considered in the calculation
of weight.

W = W1 + W2 + W3

21
 3. Uplift Pressure

 Uplift pressure is the pressure

exerted by water as it seeps
through the body of the dam
or its foundation.
 Seeping water exerts pressure
on the base of the dam and it
depends upon water head.

𝒘𝑯×𝑩
 Uplift pressure is given by 𝑷𝒖 =
𝟐 22
 4. Silt Pressure

 Sediment deposition in the reservoir results in a force acting

horizontally on the upstream face. This force is assumed to
have a hydrostatic distribution.
𝜸𝒔 𝑯𝟐 × 𝑲𝒂
 Silt Pressure is given by 𝑷𝒔 = acting at H/3 from base.
𝟐

23
 5. Wave Pressure

 Waves are generated on the surface of the reservoir by

the blowing winds, which exert a pressure on the
upstream side. Wave pressure depends upon wave
height, and is given by the equation 𝑷𝑾 = 𝟐. 𝟒 𝜸𝒘 𝒉acting
𝑾 𝟓
× at𝒉
𝟐 𝟑 𝑾
above the reservoir surface.

24
 6. Ice Pressure
 The ice which may be formed on the water surface of the
reservoir in cold countries may sometimes melt and expand.
The dam face is subjected to the thrust exerted by the
expanding ice.
7. Earthquake Pressure
 Earthquakes impart a horizontal as well as a vertical acceleration
to the dam and the stored water. This results in additional forces,
both in the horizontal and vertical directions. Horizontal and
vertical “seismic coefficients” are used to appropriately modify
these forces to account for the effect of earthquakes.
25
Failure Modes of Gravity
Dams

26
 1)Overturning
 If the moments of the destabilizing forces (such as water
pressure on the upstream face and uplift) about the toe of the
dam exceed those of the stabilizing forces (mainly the weight of
the dam), the dam can overturn.
 If the resultant force cuts the base within the body of dam there
will be no overturning.
 For safety against overturning.

F.O.S = ≥ 1.5

27
 2) Sliding
 A gravity dam may fail in sliding at any horizontal plane
if the sum of the actuating horizontal forces above that
plane is less than the resistive forces.

 For safety against sliding

F.O.S = µ × > 1
Where µ = coefficient of static earth pressure
= 0.65 to 0.75

28
 3)Normal Stress
 In order to calculate the normal stress distribution at the base, or at any
section, let be the total horizontal force, be the total vertical force and R be
the resultant force cutting the base at an eccentricity e from the center of
the base of width (b), which is equal to b/2 − x where x is the distance of
the resultant force R from the toe given by

29
 Cont.…
The normal stress at any point on the base will be the sum of the direct
stress and the bending stress. hence the total normal stress is given by

The positive sign will be used for calculating normal stress at the toe,
since the bending stress will be compressive there, and negative sign
will be used for calculating normal stress at the heel.

Thus, the normal stress at the toe is

and the normal stress at the heel is

30
Normal Stress Distribution Under The
Base Of Dam

31
 Principal stresses
 The principal stresses are given as
 At the toe of the dam is
σ = sec² β
 At the heel of the dam is
σ = sec² α – tan² α
Where
= normal stress
= wh = intensity of water pressure

32
 Shear stresses
 The shear stresses are given as
 At the toe of the dam
τ = tan β
 At the heel of the dam
τ = - (- ) tan α
Where
= normal stress
= wh = intensity of water pressure

33
 Flow Chart
for the Analysis of Concrete
Gravity Dams

34
 FLOW CHART
1) Consider unit length of the dam.

2) Calculate the vertical forces:

Weight of the dam,
Weight of water acting on inclined faces,
Uplift force.

find sum of these vertical forces ()

35
 FLOW
FLOW CHART
CHART
3) Find out the sum of horizontal forces:
Horizontal component of the water pressure is
P = w h² / 2
Find water pressure on both U/S and D/S side

Find moment due to various forces at the toe

36
 FLOW CHART
4) Calculate
Disturbing moments (taken as -ive)
and
Resisting moments (taken as +ive)

And also find their algebraic sum

37
 FLOW
FLOW CHART
CHART
5) Check safety against overturning
F.O.S = ≥ 1.5

6) Check safety against sliding

F.O.S = µ × > 1

38
 FLOW
FLOW CHART
CHART
7) Calculate the shear friction factor.

In large dams, shear strength of joint should also be

considered. Factor of safety in that case is known as
shear friction factor.

S.F.F =

b = width of the joint

q = shear strength of the joint (14 kg/cm³)

39
 FLOW
FLOW CHART
CHART
8) Find out the location (i.e. distance x) of
resultant force from the toe.

9) Find out eccentricity e of the resultant from

the center.
e = b/2 – x
where b = base width of the dam
40
 FLOW CHART
FLOW CHART
10) Find the normal stress at the toe.

(compressive stress is taken as positive)

11) Find the normal stress at the heel.

(tensile stress is taken as negative)

41
 FLOW
FLOW CHART
CHART
12) Find out principal stress at the toe
σ = sec² β

13) Find out principal stress at the heel

σ = sec² α – tan² α
Where
= normal stress
= wh = intensity of water pressure
42
 FLOW
FLOW CHART
CHART
14) Find out shear stress at toe.
τ = tan β

15) Find out shear stress at the heel

τ = - (- ) tan α
Where
= normal stress
= wh = intensity of water pressure
43
 Example
Question # 01: A masonry dam 10m high is trapezoidal section
with a top width of 1m and a bottom width of 8.25m. The face
exposed to the water has a batter of 1:10. Test the stability of
the dam. Find out the principal stresses at the toe and heel of
the dam. Assume unit weight of masonry as 2240 Kg/m³, w for
water = 1000 Kg/m³ and permissible shear stress of joint = 14
Kg/cm³.

44
45
 Solution
1) Consider unit length of the
dam i.e. 1m

2) Vertical forces:
a) self weight of the dam
WD = [(½ × 1 × 10) +
(½× 6.25 × 10) + (1×
10)] ×1× 2240
= 103600 kg
46
b) weight of water in column
AA’B
WW = (½×1×10) × 1 ×1000

= 5000 kg
c) Uplift pressure
WU=(½×8.25×10)×1×1000

= 41250 kg
= 103600+5000–41250
= 67350 kg
47
3) Horizontal water pressure
∑H = wh²/2 = 1000 × 100 / 2
= 50,000 kg

48
Moment due to various forces at the toe
a) Due to self weight of the
dam
= {( ½ ×1×10×2240)
(1+6.25+1/3)} +
{( 1×10×2240)
(6.25+0.5)} +
{( ½×6.25×10×2240)
(2/3×6.25)}
= 527800 kg-m (+ ive)
49
 Moment due to various forces at the toe

b) Due to column of water

in AA’B
= (½×10×1×1000)
(8.25 – 1/3)
= 39583 kg-m (+ive)
c) Due to uplift force
=(½×8.25×10×1000)
(2/3×8.25)
= 226875 kg-m (-ive)
50
 Moment due to various forces at the toe
d) Due to horizontal
water pressure
=1000 × 100/2 × 10/3

= 166,700 kg-m (-ive)

∑M = 527800 + 39583 – 226875 – 166700

= 567383 – 339575
= 227808 kg-m
51
5) Check safety against overturning
F.O.S = =
≥ 1.5 ………(O.K)

6) Check safety against sliding

F.O.S = µ ×
= 1.01 > 1 ………(O.K)

52
7) Shear friction factor
S.F.F = =
= 24.11
8) The resultant acts at a distance x from toe

= = 3.38
9) Eccentricity e from the center is

e = b/2 – x = 8.25/2 – 3.38 = 0.74

53
10) Compressive stress at the toe

= 67350/8.25 {1 + (6×0.74)/8.25}
= 12560 kg/m²

11) Compressive stress at the heel

= 67350/8.25 {1 - (6×0.74)/8.25}
= 3770 kg/m²

54
12) principle stress at the
toe
σ = sec² β

sec β =1/(10/11.792)
=1.179
σ = sec² β
= 12560×(1.39)
= 17460 kg/m²
55
13) principle stress at the heel
σ = sec² α – tan² α
Sec α = 1/(10/10.05)=1.005
tan α = 1 / 10 = 0.1

σ = sec² α – tan² α
= 3770×1.01
- (1000×1×10)×0.01
= 3707.7 kg/m²
56
14) shear stress at the toe
τ = tan β
tan β = 6.25 / 10 = 0.625
τ = tan β
= 12560 × 0.625
= 7850 kg/m²
15) shear stress at the heel
τ = - (- ) tan α
tan α = 1 / 10 = 0.1
τ = - (- ) tan α
= -(3770-1000×10)×0.1
= 623 kg/m² 57
 Embankment Dam
Definition
 Any dam constructed of excavated materials placed without addition of
binding materials other than those inherent in the natural material.
 The material is usually obtained at or near dam site.
 Account for over 83% of all large dams
Embankment dams resist load by gravity and embankment stability.
 The dam should stand by itself without failing
 The dam should support the load of the stored water without failing
Embankment dam consists of three basic parts:
shell,
core and
foundation.
58
Additional appurtenances are may be present depending on type of dam.
 Transition filter
r ap
p
Ri

ell
h Core

D/
Water s
/s

s
U 1

sh
ain

ell
dr
2 Toe
Upstream impervious blanket
Cut-off wall
Pervious foundation
3

Impervious stratum

59
Foundation
 Provides support both to vertical and horizontal load
 Resist seepage underneath the embankment
 Core
 To prevent seepage of water through the embankment
 Can be placed at the center or upstream from the center
 It may extend to impervious stratum in pervious foundation
 Materials
 Earth (cheap)

Concrete (less flexible)

Shell
To provide structural support for the core and to distribute the load to
foundation 60
 Types of Embankment Dams
 Embankment dams are classified in to two types:
 Earth fill / Earth dams and
 Rock fill dams.
Earthfill dams / earth dams
 An earth dam is an embankment dam, constructed primarily of compacted
earth or soil, and containing more than 50% of earth material.

 Three main types of earth dam

 Homogeneous earth dam
 Zoned earth dam
 Diaphragm earth dam

61
A. Homogeneous Earth dam
 It is composed of only one kind of material
 The material must be sufficiently impervious to provide an adequate water
barrier
 The upstream face should be flat to guard against sloughing due to rapid
drawdown
 The downstream slope should be flat so that it resists sloughing when saturated
to high level
 Regardless of d/s slope and permeability, seeping water will come out in d/s face
 Drainage filters are provided in the d/s
 These types of dams are recommended in localities
 The locally available soil shows little variation in permeability
 Soils of contrasting permeability are available in small quantities / high cost
 These types of dams are not recommended
62
B. Zoned Earth Dam
 It is the most commonly constructed type
 Three zones. An impervious core flanked by pervious shells
 Impervious core controls seepage
 The pervious shell provides structural support and protects the core
 The upstream shell provides stability against rapid drowdowns
 The downstream shell acts as a drain to control seepage and lower the
phreatic surface
 Transition filter (drains and drainage layers) control washing out of the core

63
The pervious shells are constructed from sands, gravel and cobbles
 The core
 rolled clay
concrete
The thickness of the core
at a given elevation exceeds the height of the dam above the elevation and is
at least 3 m thick
The size of the core is governed
 Seepage control
 Stability criteria
 Availability of material
 Generally they have relatively steep slopes
In a given dam site, if a variety of soil types are available, zoned embankment is
preferable as it will tend to be economical
64
C. Diaphragm Earthfill Dam
 Three zones: Upstream and downstream shell of permeable material
 Thin diaphragm / Impermeable material
 Placed centrally / upstream
 Rolled clay, cement, concrete, bituminous
 The dam is a diaphragm type
 If the thickness of the impervious core is < 3m
 At any elevation the thickness is less than the height above the elevation
 Potential for cracking of the core due to differential movement induced by
 Embankment consolidation
 Reservoir level fluctuation
 Non uniform foundation settlement

65
 Clay diaphragm
The construction of an internal earth diaphragm with the necessary filter
requires higher degree of precision
 Concrete diaphragm
Internal diaphragm made of concrete is not available for inspection or
emergency repair if ruptured
Earth blanket on upstream face for a pervious dam
 Expensive
 Constructing a filter at the u/s face is difficult
 To protect the blanket from wave action it is buried deep and can not be
inspected
If the availability of core material is so limited that zoned dam can not be
constructed, a diaphragm type is consdered
66
 Rock fill embankment dams
A rock fill dam is an embankment dam, constructed primarily of rock, as a
major structural element and containing more than 50% of rock.

67
 An impervious membrane is used as a water barrier and can be placed either
with in the embankment (Internal) or on the upstream slope (external)
 Various materials have been used for impervious membrane (impervious core)
including
 Earth,
 Concrete,
 Asphaltic concrete
 Generally rock fill dams can prove economical
 Large quantities of rock are readily available & Earth materials are difficult
to obtain
 Excessive wet climatic condition limit the placement of large quantities of
earth fill materials
 Short construction seasons prevail
 Depending on the location of the impervious membrane
 Internal membranes
 Central
 Sloping
 External
 Upstream rock

68
A. Internal Membranes
 They are generally constructed of earth materials.

Advantages
 Less total area is exposed to water
 Protection from the effects of weathering and
external damage
Disadvantages
 The membrane / core is inaccessible for damage
control
 Rock shell and the internal membrane / core with
the filter must be placed simultaneously, complex
 Difficult in correcting damages to the membranes
 Smaller section available for sliding resistance

69
B. External Membranes
They are generally constructed of concrete, asphaltic concrete
Advantage
Readily available for inspection and repair
Can be constructed after completion of the rock fill section
Large section of the dam available for sliding resistance
Can be used as a slope protection

70
Advantages and Disadvantages of Embankment Dams
100 m high dam
A . Advantages
(load to the foundation)
Suitable to wide valley and steep gorges alike
Embankment 1.8-2.1 Mpa
Adaptable to wide range of foundation condition Gravity dam 3.2 – 4.0 Mpa
Insensitive to settlement’ Buttress dam 5.5 – 7.5 Mpa

Simple construction, high mechanized process Arch dam 7.5-10.0 MPa

Use of natural materials, minimizing cost of transportation

Increasing dam height is simple
Can be well integrated to the landscape.

B. Disadvantage
 Sensitive to wave action
 Overtopping is not allowed, higher free board
 Erosion danger on the d/s unless berms are provided
71
 Construction material and progress affected by weather
 Seepage Control
Adverse Effect of Seepage
a. Project failure
 Excessive amount of seepage
b. Failure of dam due to embankment slope failures
 Slope failure due to excessive pore pressure.
 Sloughing of downstream toe due to saturation and progressive development
of local shear failure.
c. Failure of dam due to Piping
 Poor compaction, especially along conduits or near abutments, foundation etc.
 Inadvertent placement of pervious layers in the embankment section.
 Cracks in core due to differential settlement or in conduits inside the dam
section.
 Lack of filter protection or faulty filter through which soil grains can pass.
 Leaching of dispersive soils leading to deflocculation.
 Leakage through animal holes, rotten roots etc.
 Open seams or joints in rocks in dam foundation or abutments.
 Gravel and other coarse strata in foundation and abutments.

72
 Seepage Control Measure
 Two approaches
 Preventive measure: to reduce or keep the seeping water away
 Embankment:
 Impervious core is placed inside the dam in order to significantly
reduce seepage flow through dam body
Foundation:
 Cut-off walls, grout curtains, sheet pile walls, slurry trenches,
upstream horizontal blankets are provided in order to reduce the
seepage water through pervious foundations.
Curative: provide safe passage for the seeping water
 To drains, horizontal drainage filters, and chimney type filters are
provided to collect and safely remove the seeping water without causing
any damage to the embankment and foundation 73
  Seepage Control “Through Embankment” Body
A. Impervious Core (Preventive)
 Unless the availability of materials
dictates that the embankment be
basically a homogeneous section of
impervious material, a zoned section
with an impervious core is definitely
preferable.
 The core is an impervious barrier
built within an embankment dam, the
balance of the dam section being
provided to ensure stability. It may
consist of natural unprocessed
materials in a wide range of 74
B. Rock Toe / Toe filter
Stones of sizes from 15 to 20cm
Toe filters for transition from the
embankment to rock toe
Toe filter: three layers of fine sand,
coarse sand and gravel
Top of rock toe above tail water
C. Horizontal Filter
 Extends from the toe up to a distance
varying from 25% to 100% of the
distance from the dam center to the
toe
 Problem when stratification develop 75
D. Chimney Drain
 When ever there is large scale stratification, a chimney
filter consisting of a vertical and horizontal filters are used

76
  Seepage Control Through “Foundation”

A. Positive cutoff trench

 When the foundation layer is of moderate

depth (up to 25 m) a trench is excavated with
suitable side slope and up to the hard stratum.
The trench is then filled with impervious
material. The fill materials shall be the same
as the core. The cutoff provides structural
support to the core

B. Concrete diaphragm:

 Consists of a thin concrete cutoff wall placed

in a slurry trench excavated in the foundation.
77
C. Slurry trench:
A trench is excavated by a machine up to the
impervious stratum and the trench is filled with
bentonite which prevents the trench from caving
in. The trench is then backfilled with well graded
impermeable material such as mixture of sand,
gravel and bentonite blended with 10 – 15 % of
natural silt.
D. Grout curtain
 It is obtained by injecting a grout of cement,
clay, chemicals or combination of these are
injected under pressure within the foundation
zone. Clay grout is quite effective in sand and
gravel deposits. 78
E. Upstream blanket with relief well:
 If the foundation material extends to a great depth all the
methods described above may not be viable from economic point.
In such a case an upstream blanket combined with a relief well is
preferred.
 An upstream blanket reduces the seepage gradient by
increasing the flow path.
Impervious clay blanket of 1.5 m to 3 m thick and length up
to 10 times the head of the ponded water are constructed;

79