Wachemo University

College of Engineering & Technology

Department of Civil Engineering

HIGHWAY -
III
HIGHWAY -
III
Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering, Oct. 2018
1
 Outline for Highway Engineering - III Course

 CHAPTER ONE:- Road Construction

 Earthwork Operations & Equipment's
 Construction of Bases, Sub bases & Low - Cost Surfaces
 Construction of High Type Bituminous Pavements…….???

Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering 2

 Outline for Highway Engineering - III Course
 CHAPTER TWO:- Road Maintenance & Rehabilitation
 Surface Condition Survey
 Surface Distresses
 Roughness & Friction
 Structure Condition Survey
 Routine & Periodic Maintenance
 Pavement Structures & Gravel Roads
 Roadsides
 Drainage Structures
 Traffic Control & Safety Devices
 Design of Overlays
Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering 3
 Outline for Highway Engineering - III Course

 CHAPTER THREE:-
Introduction to Pavement Management System

 CHAPTER FOUR:-
Labor Based Method of Road Construction & Maintenance
 Basic Concepts of Technology Choice

 Technical & Economic Feasibility of Labor Based Method

 Social & Economic Benefits of Labor Based Method

Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering

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 Outline for Highway Engineering - III Course

 Mode of Assessment
 Continuous Assessment (50%)
 Tests
 Quizzes
 Assignments
 Mini Projects
 Reports & Presentation
 Final Exam (50%)

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 Chapter One

Road Construction

6
Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering
1. Road cross section Elements
 Right of way
 Road way Carriage way + Shoulder
 Carriage way
 Traffic lane
 Embankment (fill)
 Pavement layers
 Road bed Existing ground
 Sub grade
 Capping layers if it’s necessary
 Sub base
 Base course
 Asphalt Wearing cours

Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering 7

Cont.…

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 2. The main function of pavement layers
 Sub grade foundation
 Sub base
• Facilitates drainage
• Load distribution
 Base Course
• Load distribution
• Provide level surface for wearing course
• Prevent intrusion of fine soil in to pavement structure
 Surface course
• Load distribution
• Protect lower layers from water

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3. Deference b/n flexible and rigid pavement

Design axil load

Service life
Initial cost
Load distribution
Design force
Weathering condition (Temperature)

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 Cont.…

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Cont.…

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 1. Road Construction

1. Earth work operations and equipment's

2. Construction of Sub bases, Bases & Low-cost
Surfaces

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 1. Earth Work Operation
The construction of a graded roadbed, upon which the
sub - base, base and wearing courses will be built is called
earthwork.

Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering 14

Cont...
• It’s a process of moving soil or rock from one location to
another is called earthwork and
• processing it so that it meets construction requirements
of location, elevation, density, moisture content, and so
on.
• Basic earthwork operations may be classified as:
Clearing and grubbing

Excavations

Hauling

Grading /shaping of the roadbed

Compaction

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Cont...

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Cont...( procedure)
• Earthwork procedure in general in case of road
construction.
Understanding of specifications and site conditions
Setting rational distribution of the soil by considering

• cutting Area,
• filling area, and
• quantity etc.
Selecting the work method and the equipment in major

working process
Estimating the work period and summing up to them in

each process
Making the schedule chart of work plan to apply the

working control.
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Cont...
Equipment Selection
It has to many factors which are consider
•Soil condition, working area, hauling distance, quantity,

construction term, weather, etc.

•The ability of the equipment to perform the required work

•Possible future use of the equipment,

•Its availability,
•The availability of parts and service

“The lowest cost per Unit of

production is achieved”
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Cont...

grader

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Cont...

Dump Truck

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Cont...

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 Cont...

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 Cont...
 Clearing & Grubbing:
 Removal and disposal of all obstruction within the right of
way. Such as:-
Fence Walls
buildings rubbish bush
vegetation's stumps of a ɸ < 150mm

 All holes, ruts, etc… remaining after clearing & grubbing,

should be backfilled and compacted to prevent ponding of
water.
 Disposal of Materials obtained from clearing & grubbing.

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 Cont.…
 Excavation
• Excavation is part of the earthwork that:
Excavate Transport Embankment or disposal site
• Excavation involves the loosening, digging, loading,

hauling, disposal of material

• obtained from roadway cuts, channel changes, ditches,

structure foundations, and or borrow pits.

• Roadway excavation is material obtained from within the

right of way, exclusive of channel and structural

excavation, may be composed of common earth, solid
rock, loose rock, or any combination of these materials.

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 Cont.…
 When there is not enough suitable roadway excavation together
with suitable excess channel and structural excavation to
complete the embankment to the required line and grade, then
borrow excavation must be imported to make up the difference.
 Disposal of the materials is accomplished by incorporating it
into an embankment or wasting the surplus amount or material
of unsuitable nature.
 Unsuitable Materials: such materials are unstable in their
natural state because of excessive moisture content. Such
materials should be wasted, or used to flatten slopes, unless an
economical method of treatment is available to make them
satisfactory.

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 Cont.…
 Surplus Material: the one obtained when the required
excavation yields more material than the proposed
embankment construction requires. This surplus material is
normally classified as waste.
 Excavation includes constructing, shaping, and finishing of all
earth work for the entire length of the roadway, and its
approaches in conformity to the required lines, grades, typical
sections, and pertinent specifications.
 Excavate, haul, dispose, place, and compact specified
materials necessary to construct the project.

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 Cont.…
Types of Excavation:
 Common Excavation: Excavate and use or dispose of all
material encountered. Clear, grub, and remove topsoil before
beginning excavation, grading and embankment operations.
Dispose of surplus or unsuitable excavated material.

 Rock Excavation: includes all masses of material, which

cannot be removed without blasting or ripping, and all
detached stones or boulders.

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 Cont.…
 Borrow Excavation: material coming from approved sources
normally outside the limits of the project.
 Unsuitable Excavation: used to provide the removal and
disposal of saturated or unsaturated mixtures of soil and
organic matter not suitable for foundation material.

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 Cont.…
 Embankment/Compaction
• Compaction of material above the natural ground.
• Construction methods which ensure to the extent
economically feasible, uniformity of material, layer thickness
and moisture content.
• Usually it is better to begin compaction with the moisture
content slightly high; however, in humid areas it may be
better to begin with the moisture content at optimum.
• Embankment soils must be compacted to densities which will
provide adequate stability.

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Cont.…
 Density tests for control of compaction

 For road construction. The field density test shall be

performed every 50m left, center and right

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Cont.…

Control of Compaction by Ordinary Methods: Particular

attention should be given towards maintaining proper loose
layer thickness, proper moisture content, and adequate
coverage with the specified rollers
Special care shall be exercised in compacting embankments

adjacent to structure Trimming embankment.

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 Cont.…

• Degree of Compaction and layer thickness:

 layer thickness < 450mm 95%MDD
 layer thickness = (450mm – 900mm)
 first layer (0-450)mm 90%MDD
 Second layer (450-900)mm 95%MDD
 layer thickness > 900mm
 first layer (1/3 of thickness) 90%MDD
 Second layer (2/3 of thickness) 93%MDD
 Surd layer (the remaining thickness) 95%

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 Cont...

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 Cont...
1.1 Preparation of Right of Way (ROW)
 The initial operation in the construction of road.

 The boundaries of all areas in which the project work is to be

performed should be clearly marked.

 All obstructions & Objectionable Materials like
 trees,
 undergrowth,
 abandoned utilities,
 drainage structures etc.. , are to be removed and disposed of in
accordance with the governing specifications.
 Careful investigation should be made to determine the location
of all underground facilities within the ROW

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Cont.…

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 Cont.…
 Tree Removal
• Cutting, grumbling, removal and disposal of trees and stump
 Protection of the existing plant material adjacent to the right of
way.
 Repair or replacement of existing plant materials

• If a tree ɸ >150mm or height >1.3m consider as a single

tree
• Limit of construction:- a boundary line not necessarily the
right of way line.

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 Cont.…
 Removal of Structures & Obstructions
 Remove Bridges, Culverts & other drainage structures.
Dismantle designated Agency - retained material without
damage.
 Dispose/removal of designated
 concrete pavement,
 base course,
 sidewalks,
 curbs,
 gutters,
 foundations,
 gravel, bituminous material, etc..

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 Cont.…
• Measurement and payment
SERIES 2000 : SITE CLEARANCE
Item No. Item Description Unit Quantity Rate Amount, Birr
2100 CLEARIN G AND GRUBBIN G
21.01 Clearing & grubbing ha 300.2 25,730.69 7,724,111.14
TOTAL FOR SERIES 2000 : SITE CLEARANCE 7,724,111.14

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 Cont.…
1.2 sub-grade preparation
•This work shall consist of preparing the completed or existing
earthwork.
 Rough grading
 Surfacing
•Consists of scarifying/digging at least the top 15cm of the sub
grade,
 mixing until uniform in color and texture,
 compacting to a higher density than normal embankment layers at a
specified moisture content, and
 shaping to the required typical section within specified tolerances.

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 Cont.…
• The Contractor shall take the following steps:
 Drain the area, at least to grade. This shall be done at
least two weeks prior to Step 2.
 Air dry the top 150-200 mm of subgrade. This shall be

done for three consecutive good drying days.

 Re compact the layer processed in Step 2 to achieve the

required density.
• The rolling shall extend at least 450mm beyond each edge of
the proposed base course.

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 Cont.…
Soil modification
•This work shall consist of constructing a modified soil layer
composed of soil, water, and a modifier.
•Before construction of sub-grade 45 day, test sample should be
taken form the site.
•Compaction of modified soil is completed with in one hour after
mixing legions.
•OMC of modified soil is greater than the OMC of original soil.
•Checking the stability of the modified soil in terms of the
immediate bearing value (IBV)

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 Cont.…
1.3 Sub base preparation
•This work shall consist of
 furnishing,
 placing, and

compacting granular material on the prepared subgrade as shown on the plans .
•Under special circumstances, it may also act as a filter or as a drainage
layer.
•And also use as a construction platform
•“In order to avoid intrusion of salty and clayey material from the subgrade to the sub base, the ratio D15
(Sub base)/D85 (Subgrade) should be less than 5, where D85 and D15 are the particle diameters
corresponding to eighty five (85) % and fifteen (15) %, respectively, passing (by weight) in grain size
analysis.”

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 Cont.…
• The materials used for the construction of sub bases could be
either:
• Natural Gravel
• Weathered Rock
• Crushed Gravel
• Crushed Rock or Crushed Boulders
• Recycled Pavement Material
• And any other granular material complying with the
requirements of sub bases

Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering 47

Cont.…
 Material requirements for Gravel Sub base could be obtained
from approved sources in borrow areas, cuts or existing
pavement layers.
 CBR > 30%
 PI < 12 and LL<45
 Shrinkage of <6
 PM < 500 (PM(plasticity modulus)=PI*%Passing the 0.452mm sieve)
 Well graded
 The complete sub base should contain no material having a
maximum dimension exceeding two thirds of the completed layer
thickness.
 In Ethiopia, laterite is one of the widely available material used for
sub base

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Cont.…
 Gravel Sub base materials should conform to the following
requirements:
 Grading Limits: the material should have a smooth
continuous grading within the limits of grading
 Plasticity Index (PI)
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
 Compaction Requirements(MDD)
 Los Angeles Abrasion (LAA)
 Particle Shape; Flakiness Index (for crushed stone sub -
base)

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Cont.…

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 Cont.…
Construction Requirements:
• Sub - base material should be spread on the approved sub
grade by mechanical means without segregation.
• The material should be loosely spread in layers to give a
compacted thickness not exceeding 200mm and not less than
100mm. The final compacted layer should be free from
concentrations of coarse or fine materials.
 The surface of each completed layer should be moistened
prior to construction of the succeeding layer.
 Spreading and shaping the mixture on the prepared surface
in a uniform layer.

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 Cont.…

The material should be compacted by the use of rollers

progressing gradually from the outside towards the center of
the layer, except on super elevated curves,
where the rolling should begin at the low side and progress to
the high side.
Rolling should continue until the entire thickness of each layer
is thoroughly and uniformly compacted to the specified density.
The granular material shall be placed and compacted at least
three days prior to the placement of pavement or base course

Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering 52

 Cont.…
• Construction joints: there is a time lapse of seven days or
more between the processing of adjacent sections. When
construction joints are required, they shall be formed by
cutting back 1 m into the completed work to form a vertical
face.
• Tolerance in Thickness: the surface elevation of the
completed sub base shall not exceed by more than 5 mm the
surface elevation shown on the plans.
 If 90% less than add aggregate to overcame the
thickness

Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering 53

 Cont.…
• Measurement and payment

SERIES 5000 : SUBBASE, ROADBASE AND GRAVEL WEARING COURSE

Item No. Item Description Unit Quantity Rate Amount, BIRR
51.01 SUBBASE
51.01(a)i Gravel sub-base layer, 95% MDD, AASHTO T-180 m3 372,346.94 198.38 73,867,776
5200 ROAD BASES / BASE COURSE
52.01(b)ii Base layer, crushed stone, 103% compaction (maximum compacted thickness m3
177,868.42 558.19 99,283,693
200mm )
54.01(a) Gravel wearing course for shoulders m3 28,244.28 185.00 5,225,192
TOTAL FOR SERIES 5000 : SUBBASE, ROADBASE AND GRAVEL W EARING COURSE 173,151,468.60

Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering 54

 Cont.… De taile d Bre ak do wn o f W o rk Ite m
Unit Price s

• Measurement and payment

Pro je ct :
W o rk Ite m :
Fe le ge Birhan-Bahirdar Ro ad Pro je ct,Co ntract I (Bahirdar to Abaya River Bridge )
Material Production Performance rate : 558 3
m /day
1.25

To tal quantity o f wo rk ite m : 69.75 m3 / hr

Material co st Labor cost Equipment cost

Material Unit Qty Rate Cost per Title Qty UF Indexed Total Equipment Qty UF Rental co st
Type unit hrly cost hrly cost type hrly Total
Equip. operator III 1.00 1.00 51.06 51.06 Crawler Dozer, d8r 1.00 1.00 2291.72 2291.72
Helper II 1.00 1.00 9.32 9.32

To tal 0.00 Total 60.38 Total 2291.72

A = Material Unit Cost 0.00 Birr/m 3 B = Manpower Unit Cost: 0.87 Birr/m 3 C = Equipment Unit Cost : Operation 32.86 Birr/m 3

Direct cost of work item =A+B+C= 33.72 Birr/m 3

Assuming 10 % project overhead, 10 % profit margin and 5% for others, the total surcharge adopted is 25% of direct cost. Thus :
Total cost = 42.15 Birr/m 3

UF : Utilization Factor
* Inclusive of waste
** Inclusive of benefits, travel subsides and cost of overtime related to the work item

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 Detaile d Break do wn o f W o rk Item

Cont.… Unit Price s 1.25

Project : Fe legeBirhan-Bahirdar Ro ad Pro ject,Co ntract I (Bahirdar to Abaya Rive r Bridge )

• Measurement and payment Cap. 10 m3 Performance rate : 558 M3/day

Work Item : Material Hauling Av Dist. 3.10 km 69.75 M3/hr
Total quantity of work item : Av. Spd 30 km/h
t for L&UnL 8 min
Material Cost Labor cost Equipment cost
Material Unit Qty Rate Cost/ Title Qty UF Indexed To tal Equipment Qty UF Rental rate
Type unit hrly cost hrly cost type hrly Total
Equip. operator II 1 1 37.26 37.26 Loader, W heel 1 1.00 1010.41 1010.41
Helper II 1 0.5 9.32 4.66 Dump Truck 6x4 2 1.00 945.35 1890.71
Equip. operator I 2 1 37.26 74.52

To tal 0.00 Total 116.44 Total 2901.12

A = Material Unit Cost 0.00 Birr/m3 B = Manpower Unit Cost 1.67 Birr/m3 C = Equipment Unit Cost : 41.59 Birr/m3

Direct cost of work item = A+B+C = 43.26 Birr/m 3

Assuming 10 % project overhead, 10 % profit margin and 5% for others, the total surcharge adopted is 25% of direct cost. Thus :
To tal cost = 54.08 Birr/m 3

UF : Utilization Factor
* Inclusive of waste
** Inclusive of benefits, travel subsidies and cost of overtime related to the work item

Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering56

 Detaile d Break do wn o f W o rk Item

Cont.… Unit Price s 1.25

Project : Fe le ge Birhan-Bahirdar Ro ad Pro ject,Co ntract I (Bahirdar to Abaya River Bridge)

• Measurement and payment Cap. 10 m3 Performance rate : 558 M3 /day

W ork Item : Material Hauling Av Dist. 3.10 km 69.75 M3 /hr
Total quantity of work item : Av. Spd 30 km/h
t for L&UnL 8 min
Material Cost Labor cost Equipment cost
Material Unit Qty Rate Cost/ Title Qty UF Indexed Total Equipment Qty UF Rental rate
Type unit hrly co st hrly co st type hrly Total
Equip. operator II 1 1 37.26 37.26 Loader, W heel 1 1.00 1010.41 1010.41
Helper II 1 0.5 9.32 4.66 Dump Truck 6x4 2 1.00 945.35 1890.71
Equip. operator I 2 1 37.26 74.52

Total 0.00 Total 116.44 Total 2901.12

A = Material Unit Cost 0.00 Birr/m3 B = Manpower Unit Cost 1.67 Birr/m3 C = Equipment Unit Cost : 41.59 Birr/m3

Direct cost of work item = A+B+C = 43.26 Birr/m 3

Assuming 10 % project overhead, 10 % profit margin and 5% for others, the total surcharge adopted is 25% of direct cost. Thus :
Total cost = 54.08 Birr/m 3

UF : Utilization Factor
* Inclusive of waste
** Inclusive of benefits, travel subsidies and cost of overtime related to the work item

Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering 57

 Cont.…
1.4 Base course preparation

Material Requirements
The materials used for the construction of road base layers
could be one of the following:
 Crushed Rock or Stone (GB )
1

 Naturally Occurring Granular Materials, Boulders,

Weathered Rock (GB2 & GB3)
 Dense Bitumen Macadam (GB1A)

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Cont.…

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 Cont.…

ACV<=25%
LAA<=35%

Soundness (Sodium sulphate)<=12

Flakiness Index<=5

Water Absorption

Plasticity Index (PI)<=6

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 Cont.…
• The aggregates shall comply with the following grading and
quality requirements.
Table 1.3: Gradation Requirements
Standard sieve size (mm) Percentage by mass passing
50 100
37.5 95-100 100
20 60-80 70-85
10 40-60 50-65
5 25-40 35-55
2.36 15-30 25-40
0.425 7-19 12-24
0.075 5-12 5-12

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 Cont.…
Construction Requirements
 The material should be laid either by a self propelled paving
machine or by means of a grader
 The equipment should be of adequate rated capacity & in good
working order.
 The mixing plant could be either a batch type or continuous
type and equipped with means of accurately controlling the
proportions of all constituent material.
 Compaction should be carried out using multi wheeled
pneumatic tyred rollers.
 Road base material should be spread by mechanical means
without segregation.
Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering 62
 Cont.…
 The material should loosely be spread in layers to give a
compacted thickness within 10 - 20cm.
 The surface of each completed layer should be moistened
prior to the construction of the succeeding layer.
 Prior to compaction the moisture content of the spread
material should be adjusted either by the uniform application
of water or drying out to achieve the OMC.
 The surface of the completed layer should be tightly bound,
free from movement under the compaction plant, and free
from cracks, or loose or segregated materials.

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 Cont.…
Measurement and Payment

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End…………………!!!

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 Cont.…
1.5 Bituminous Surface Courses and Pavement
Prime Coat
Material Requirement
The material used for priming could be MC - 30, MC - 70, or MC -
250 cutback bitumen.
The aggregate used for blinding the primed surface should
consist of fine crushed rock or river sand.
Constriction requirement (Safety)
The handling and application of bituminous binders are
hazardous operations. Attention is drawn to the risk of fire and
toxic fumes, which may cause extensive damage to the equipment
and injury to the equipment operators.
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 Cont.…
 Crew men should wear heat resistant gauntlet gloves.
 Face masks should be worn when a spray lance is used
because of possible rupture of the armored hose.

Bitumen Distributor
• The distributor should be free from binder or fuel leaks;
• The distributor should be fitted with an accurate means of
measuring and indicating the road speed of the vehicle at
operational speeds.
• Pipes shall be provided with suitable couplings to ensure the
safe transfer of binder to and from the distributor for loading
and unloading.
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Cont.…

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 Cont.…
Application of the Prime Coat
•In general, the rate of application of prime shall be in the
range of 0.6 – 1.0 liter/m2.
•Wherever feasible, the prime shall be applied in one or more
lanes evenly over the full width of the road and allowed to
penetrate and cure until traffic can pass over the surface
without the wheels picking up the prime. All traffic shall be kept
off the surface until this condition is obtained (usually for 24hrs
– 48hrs)
•If prime is applied in more than one lane, allowance shall be
made for overlapping the lanes by 100 mm.

Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering 70

 Cont.…
• After the prime has penetrated sufficiently, surplus prime
shall be covered with damp crusher sand, which shall be
worked into it by means of hand brooms in order to absorb
the surplus prime.

Wachemo University, College of Engineering & Technology, Department of civil Engineering 71

 Cont.…
 Tack Coat
• Material
• RC - 70 or RC - 250 cutback bitumen
• Bitumen emulsion

• Safety, equipment, preparation of the surface are similar to

the prime coat.
• Application of the tack coat
• In general, the rate of application of tack coat shall be in

the range of 0.18 to 0.2 Liter/m2.

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Cont.…

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Cont.…

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Cont.…

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Cont.…

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Cont.…

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Cont.…

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General Limitations
•Weather conditions
• Asphalt mixes may be mixed and placed only under

favorable weather conditions, and should not be mixed or

placed when rain is imminent or during wet weather
conditions.
•Moisture
• Mixing and placing of asphaltic mixes will not be allowed if:

 the moisture content of the aggregate affects the

uniformity of temperature;
 free water is present on the working surface;
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• Heating the aggregate
• The aggregate shall be dried and heated to the required temperature.
• Batching
• Each fraction of the aggregate and binder shall be measured
separately and accurately in the proportions by mass in which they are
to be mixed.

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• Mixing
• Aggregates, filler and binder shall be mixed until a
homogeneous mixture is obtained in which all particles are
uniformly coated.
• The aggregate and filler shall be accurately proportioned
and conveyed into the drum mixing unit
• The calibrated amount of binder shall be sprayed onto the
aggregates at the correct position so that no hardening of
the binder shall take place.
• A homogeneous mixture and uniform coating of binder
must be achieved.

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• Transporting the mixture
• Loads shall be covered by waterproof canvas or insulated
metal sheets when the haul exceeds 10 km or during cold,
windy or rainy weather
• Any asphalt which has become wet due to rain or any
other cause shall be rejected.
• Hauling over freshly laid material is not permitted.

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• Spreading the mixture
• The mixture shall be delivered to the paver in such a
manner that the paver will never be forced to stop for lack
of asphalt.
• The temperature of the mixture shall be controlled by
measuring in a random pattern in the truck immediately
before emptying and shall not be more than 10° C below
the minimum temperature specified for mixing.
• Addition and removal of material behind the paver shall
normally not be allowed and the paver shall be capable of
spreading the mixture to the correct amounts that will
provide the required compacted thickness.
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•The paver shall be equipped to provide automatic control of

levels and cross section.
•The mixer capacity and the operating speed of the paver are

to be so coordinated as to ensure continuous laying and to

avoid intermittent stopping of the paver.

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 Compaction
• The material shall not be excessively displaced in a
longitudinal or transverse direction especially when
changing gears, stopping or starting rollers.
• No cracks or hair cracks shall be formed and the bond with
the underlying layer shall not be broken.
• Rollers shall not be left standing on the asphalt layer
before it has been fully compacted and before the layer
surface temperature has dropped below 60 oC.

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• The mix shall be rolled as soon as possible after it has
been laid by a combination of vibratory and non-vibratory
steel tyred flat rollers and pneumatic tyred rollers in a
sequence predetermined and approved during the laying
of trial sections.

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Measurement and Payment

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