PRINCIPLES OF NEURAL AND
HORMONAL COMMUNICATION
Chapter 4
Review - Membrane Potential
Remember, neurons have a resting
membrane potential of -70mV
Review – Membrane Potential Summary
• Membrane potentials exist because of concentration differences across the membrane
Review – Membrane Potential Summary
• Membrane potentials exist because of concentration differences across the membrane
• It is true that the major determinant of resting potential is, in general, potassium
Review – Membrane Potential Summary
• Membrane potentials exist because of concentration differences across the membrane
• It is true that the major determinant of resting potential is, in general, potassium
• Although potassium is the determining factor for resting potential, the actual resting
potential will not equal the potential of potassium because of the permeability of other
ions
Review – Membrane Potential Summary
• Membrane potentials exist because of concentration differences across the membrane
• It is true that the major determinant of resting potential is, in general, potassium
• Although potassium is the determining factor for resting potential, the actual resting
potential will not equal the potential of potassium because of the permeability of other
ions
• The magnitude of the resting potential of membrane is determined by the weighted
average of the ions
Review – Membrane Potential Summary
• Membrane potentials exist because of concentration differences across the membrane
• It is true that the major determinant of resting potential is, in general, potassium
• Although potassium is the determining factor for resting potential, the actual resting
potential will not equal the potential of potassium because of the permeability of other
ions
• The magnitude of the resting potential of membrane is determined by the weighted
average of the ions
• Resting potential is a metabolic process
Introduction
There are two major regulatory systems of the body that ensure survival:
1) Nervous system
2) Endocrine system
Introduction
There are two major regulatory systems of the body that ensure survival:
1) Nervous system
2) Endocrine system
Neurons
Introduction
Properties of nervous and muscle tissues
• Excitable tissues
• Excitability: The ability of neurons (and muscles) to change their membrane
potentials
• Can change their resting potentials into electrical signals
• Remember, neurons have a resting membrane potential of -70mV
How neurons communicate
How Neurons Communicate
Changes in Membrane Potential
Polarization: Any state when the membrane potential is not 0mV
Depolarization: Membrane becomes less polarized than resting potential
Repolarization: Membrane returns to resting potential after having been
depolarized
Hyperpolarization: Membrane becomes more polarized than at resting potential
Changes in Membrane Potential
Depolarization: Occurs when positive ions enter the cell (typically Na+)
Hyperpolarization: Occurs when positive ions leave the cell (usually K+)
Changes in Membrane Potential
There are two kinds of potential change:
1) Graded Potentials: Serve as short-distance signals
2) Action Potentials: Serve as long-distance signals
Graded Potentials vs. Action Potentials
Action Potentials
Graded Potentials
Graded Potentials
Properties of graded potentials include:
• Occurs in a small, specialized region of excitable cell membranes
• Magnitude of graded potentials varies directly with the magnitude of the
triggering event
• Spread by passive current flow
Graded Potentials
Graded Potentials
Action Potentials
Properties of action potentials include:
• Brief, rapid reversals of membrane potential
• Spread by local current flow and are non-decremental (Do not decrease in
strength as they travel from their site of initiation)
• All-or-nothing events
How do action potentials work?
Action Potentials
Action potentials are driven by the influx and efflux of sodium and potassium
Action Potentials – Potassium
There are two types of K+ channels in
neurons:
1) Leaky potassium channels
2) Voltage-gated potassium channels
Action Potentials – Sodium
There is only 1 type of Na+ channel in
neurons:
1) Voltage-gated sodium channels
Action Potentials – Sodium
Voltage-gated sodium channels exist in 3
different states:
1) Closed, able to open
2) Open, “activated”
3) Closed, unable to open
Action Potentials
Action Potentials – Step 1
1) At resting potential (-70mV) all
voltage-gated channels are closed
Action Potentials – Step 2
2a) If a stimulus occurs and causes a
depolarization to -55mV (threshold
potential), an action potential will happen
2b)At threshold, voltage-gated sodium
channels (Type 1) open (Type 2)
Action Potentials – Step 3
3) Sodium ions rapidly enter the cell,
resulting in the rising phase of the action
potential
Action Potentials – Step 3
Action Potentials – Step 4
At +30mV, the action potential reaches its
peak and two key events happen:
4a) Voltage-gated sodium channels close
and are inactivated (Type 3)
4b) Voltage-gated potassium channels
open
Action Potentials – Step 5
5) Potassium rapidly leaves the cell,
causing repolarization and the falling
phase of the action potential
Action Potentials – Step 6
At the end of the falling phase, two key
events happen:
6) Once repolarized to -70mv, voltage-
gated sodium channels are reset to closed
but capable of being opened (Type 1)
Action Potentials – Step 7
At the end of the falling phase, two key
events happen:
7) Voltage-gated potassium channels are
slow to close, causing a hyperpolarization
to -85mV
Action Potentials – Step 8
8) Once all voltage-gated potassium
channels are closed, the sodium-
potassium pump reestablishes the resting
membrane potential
Action Potentials
Graded vs. Action Potentials
Graded Potentials vs. Action Potentials
Action Potentials
Graded Potentials
Action Potentials
Refractory Periods
Refractory Period: Occurs after an action potential when the neuron cannot become
excited again
There are two types of refractory periods:
1) Absolute refractory period
2) Relative refractory period
Refractory Periods
Propagation of Action Potentials
Propagation of Action Potentials
An action potential attenuates with
distance and causes a local change in
gradient, which causes the next action
potential
Propagation of Action Potentials
There are two types of action potential propagation:
1) Contiguous conduction
2) Saltatory conduction
Propagation of Action Potentials –
Contiguous Conduction
• Conduction in unmyelinated fibers
• Action potential spreads along every
portion of the membrane
Propagation of Action Potentials –
Saltatory Conduction
Myelin: Primarily composed of lipids,
insulates the axon at regular intervals
to increase the rate of propagation
Propagation of Action Potentials –
Saltatory Conduction
• Rapid conduction in myelinated fibers
• Impulse “jumps” over sections of the
fiber covered with insulating myelin
Continuous vs. Saltatory Conduction
• Continuous • Saltatory
• No myelin • Myelin
• Slower conduction • Faster conduction
• Voltage-gated ion channels along • Voltage-gated ion channels only at
length of axon Nodes of Ranvier
• Uses more energy • Uses less energy
Summary
Multiple Sclerosis
Video Links
• Video 1
• [Link]
• Video 2
• [Link]
SYNAPSES
Neural Synapse
Neural Synapse
Types of Synapses
• Axodendritic Synapses
• Axosomatic Synapses
• Axoaxonic Synapses
Neural Synapse
Neural Synapse – Step 1
1) The action potential arrives, causing
sodium to enter and depolarize the axon
terminal
Neural Synapse – Step 2
2) The depolarization causes voltage-
gated calcium channels to open, resulting
in a large influx of Ca2+ ions entering the
synaptic knob
Neural Synapse – Step 3
3) Calcium binds to a protein and causes
the release of vesicles containing
neurotransmitters through exocytosis
Neural Synapse – Step 4
4) Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic
cleft and bind to receptors on the
postsynaptic neuron
Neural Synapse – Step 5
5) This binding causes the activation of
chemically-gated ion channels, resulting
in changes to the membrane potential of
the postsynaptic neuron
Ligand-Gated Channels
• Two types of receptors:
• Ionotropic – ion channels
open directly in response to
receptor binding
• Metabotropic – uses a second
messenger to send a signal
Neural Synapse – Presynaptic Neuron
The amount of neurotransmitter released can be increased by
1) Increasing the influx of calcium
2) Increasing the number of of vesicles containing neurotransmitters
Neural Synapse – Postsynaptic Neuron
There are a few properties of postsynaptic neurons that dictate the reaction to a
neurotransmitter:
• Post-synaptic sites are located on the dendrites of neurons in the CNS
• Dendrites do not contain voltage gated sodium channels, therefore changes in
membrane potential on post-synaptic cells are graded
Neural Synapse – Postsynaptic Neuron
There are two types of graded changes in post-synaptic membrane potentials:
1) Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potentials (EPSPs)
2) Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potentials (IPSPs)
Neural Synapse – Postsynaptic Neuron
Chemical Messengers
There are four main types of chemical messengers:
1) Paracrines
2) Neurotransmitters*
3) Hormones*
4) Neurohormones
Neurotransmitters
There are 2 categories of neurotransmitters:
1) Small molecules (classical)
2) Peptides
Neurotransmitters
There are 10 classical neurotransmitters:
1) Acetylcholine
Amino Acids:
2) Glutamate
3) Aspirate
4) GABA
5) Glycine
Amines:
6) Dopamine
7) Norepinephrine
8) Epinephrine
9) Serotonin
10) Histamine
Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh) is one of the most common neurotransmitter the body uses:
• Skeletal muscles
• Somatic motor neurons
• Autonomic nervous system
Neurotransmitters
There are two main types of ACh receptors:
1) Nicotinic: Found in specific regions of the brain, autonomic ganglia, and skeletal
muscle cells
2) Muscarinic: Found in smooth muscle cells, cardiac muscle cells, and specific
glands
*Whether a neurotransmitter is excitatory or inhibitory depends on the cell it is
acting on