Springs
Spring
A spring is defined as an elastic body,
whose function is to distort when loaded
and to recover its original shape when
the load is removed.
Springs can be classified by the direction
and nature of the force exerted when
they are deflected
Applications
The various important applications of
springs are as follows :
1. To cushion, absorb or control energy
due to either shock or vibration as in
car springs, railway buffers, air-craft
landing gears, shock absorbers and
vibration dampers.
2. To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches
and spring loaded valves.
Applications
3. To control motion by maintaining
contact between two elements as in cams
and followers.
4. To measure forces, as in spring
balances and engine indicators.
5. To store energy, as in watches, toys,
etc.
Spring
The aim of the topic is to introduce the
class to spring technology and to
outline the principal steps applicable to
the design of different types of springs
such as helical compression, extension
and torsion springs, leaf springs, flat
springs, drawback spring, garter spring,
constant force spring, power spring,
and Belleville washer springs
Spring categorization
Classification of springs according to the
nature of force or torque exerted
Spring materials
Virtually any material can be used to make
springs. However, the ideal material would have a
high ultimate strength and yield point and a low
modulus of elasticity in order to provide maximum
energy storage.
Spring materials
These include high strength steels, glass-fibre
reinforced plastic (GFRP), which is used for certain
truck springs, titanium alloys, glass, which is used
in galvanometers and nylon, which is used in some
toys.
The choice for most applications tends to be limited
to plain carbon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels,
high-nickel steels and copper-based alloys. Most
spring materials are manufactured to ASTM, BS or
DIN specifications.
Spring materials
Material Safe shear stress, Modulus of rigidity,
N/mm 2 N/mm 2
High carbon steel 480 0.8 X 105
Oil tempered carbon steels 400 0.8 x 105
Stainless steel 325 0.7 X 105
Music wire 460 .
0.8 X 105
Phosphor bronze 225 0.48 X 105
Monel 250 0.67 X 105
Brass spring 160 0.4 X 105
Chromium vanadium alloy steel 405 0.8 X 105
Nickel silver 250 0.39 X 105
Spring selection: A function of Allowable
Stresses
Types of Loading and Allowable Stresses
The allowable stress to be used for a spring depends on the
type of loading, the material, and size of the wire. Loading
is usually classified into three types:
• Light service: Static loads or up to 10 000 cycles of
loading with a low rate of loading (nonimpact).
• Average service: Typical machine design situations;
moderate rate of loading and up to 1 million cycles.
• Severe service: Rapid cycling for above 1 million cycles;
possibility of shock or impact loading; engine valve springs
are a good example.
springs
Springs
Springs: notation for diameters
Tutorial questions: Not for marks
Q1. Identify and discuss advantages of 6
different spring types based on the major spring
classifications and specify at least 2 practical
applications of each of the springs (5mks).
Q2. In 100 words, discuss materials for
manufacturing helical springs in terms of weight,
service life, allowable shear stress, modulus of
elasticity and modulus of rigidity (5mks).
Compression springs: common terms
1. Solid length: LS = n'.d where n' = Total number of coils,
and d = Diameter of the wire.
2. Free length:
LF = Solid length + Maximum compression + *Clearance between
adjacent coils (or clash allowance) = n'.d + δmax + 0.15 δmax
The following relation may also be used to find the free length of
the spring, i.e. LF = n'.d + δmax + (n' – 1) × 1 mm where
clearance b/w adjacent coils is taken as 1mm.
3. Spring index: Mathematically, Spring index, C = D / d or
alternatively written as C = Dm / Dw where D = Mean
diameter of the coil, and d = Diameter of the wire.
Compression springs: common terms
4. Spring rate: All materials deform with load. For a
spring, the parameter modelling is called the spring rate
and this is defined as the slope of the force deflection
curve of a spring.
Spring rate is also known as the spring constant or spring
scale (spring stiffness) .
Spring rate k in (N/m), k = F / δ
where F = Applied Load,
δ = Deflection of the spring.
Note: F can also be represented as W. Spring rates can be
linear or nonlinear.
Compression springs: common terms
5. pitch: The pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance
between adjacent coils in uncompressed state.
Pitch of the coil, p = Free length/ n′ – 1.
The pitch of the coil may also be obtained by using the following
relation,
i.e. Pitch of the coil, p = (Lf – Ls / n′ ) + d
where LF = Free length of the spring,
LS = Solid length of the spring,
n' = Total number of coils, and d = Diameter of the wire.
The relationships among the pitch, free length, wire diameter, and
number of active coils are:
Squared and ground ends: Lf = pNa + 2Dw
Squared ends only: Lf = pNa + 3Dw
Plain and ground ends: Lf = p(Na + 1)
Plain ends: Lf = pNa + Dw
Pitch angle
The larger the pitch angle, the steeper the coils appear to be. Most
practical spring designs produce a pitch angle less than about 12°.
If the angle is greater than 12°, undesirable compressive stresses
develop in the wire, and the formulas presented later are
inaccurate. The pitch angle can be computed by the formula:
Pitch angle λ = tan-1 []
[Link]
springs
Note : In designing a tension spring, the minimum gap
between two coils when the spring is in the free state is taken
as 1 mm. Thus the free length of the spring, LF = n.d + (n – 1)
and the pitch of the coil, p = (Lf / n – 1)
Typical properties of common spring materials
Spring combination
Springs can be combined in parallel, or in series
Series Parallel
Spring combination
For springs in parallel, the spring rates add directly:
K total = K1 + K2 +K3 + K4 + Kn………..
For springs in series, the spring rates combines reciprocally:
= + + + + ………
Consider two springs connected in series
W = Load carried by the springs,
δ1 = Deflection of spring 1,
δ2 = Deflection of spring 2,
k1 = Stiffness of spring 1 = W / δ1, and
k2 = Stiffness of spring 2 = W / δ2
The total deflection produced by the springs is equal to the sum of
the deflections of the individual springs i.e δ = δ1 + δ2 or
= +
Example 1
A close coiled helical compression spring of 12 active coils has a
spring stiffness of k. It is cut into two springs having 5 and 7
turns. Determine the spring stiffness's of resulting springs.
Solution
Given : n = 12 ; n1 = 5; n2 = 7
Since G, D and d are constants, therefore
= a constant, we have = k = 1 k1
X = kn = 12k 2
k2
k1 = = = 2.4 k
Springs in series.
k2 = = = 1.7 k
End Connections for Compression helical Springs
In all springs, the end coils produce an eccentric
application of the load, increasing the stress on one
side of the spring. Under certain conditions, especially
where the number of coils is small, this effect must be
taken into account.
It may be noted that part of the coil which is in
contact with the seat does not contribute to spring
action and hence are termed as inactive coils. The
turns which impart spring action are known as active
turns.
As the load increases, the number of inactive coils also
increases due to seating of the end coils and the
amount of increase varies from 0.5 to 1 turn at the
usual working loads.
End Connections for Compression helical Springs
End Connections for tension helical Springs
End Connections
n = Number of active turns,
p = Pitch of the coils, and
d = Diameter of the spring wire.
Spring design considerations
Important aspects in spring design
include:
Determination of the spring material and
Determination of dimensions in order to ensure
that it will not fail due to either static or
fluctuating loads for the lifetime required, that it
will not buckle or deform beyond allowable limits,
that the natural frequencies of vibration are
sufficiently in excess of the frequency of motion
that they control and that cost and aesthetic
aspirations are met
Spring design considerations
The free-body diagram for a
helical spring loaded with force F
is illustrated in the figure.
There are two components of
stress on any cross section of coil,
a torsional shear stress due to the
torque and a direct shear
stress due to the force. The
stresses add and the maximum
shear stress will occur at the
inner fibre of the wire’s cross
section.
Stresses in helical Spring
D or Dm = Mean diameter of the spring coil,
d or Dw = Diameter of the spring wire,
n = Number of active coils,
G = Modulus of rigidity for the spring material,
W or F = Axial load on the spring,
τ = Maximum shear stress induced in the wire,
C = Spring index = D/d,
p = Pitch of the coils, and
δ = Deflection of the spring, as a result of an
axial load W.
Stresses in helical Spring
Maximum shear stress induced in the wire = Torsional shear
stress + Direct shear stress
We know that direct shear stress due to the load W,
τ1= =
We know that the resultant shear stress induced in the wire,
τ = τ 1 ± τ2 = ±
Stresses in helical Spring
In addition to the torsional shear stress (τ1) induced in the
wire, the following stresses also act on the wire :
1. Direct shear stress due to the load W, and
2. Stress due to curvature of wire.
We know that direct shear stress due to the load W,
τ1= =
We know that the resultant shear stress induced in the wire,
τ = τ 1 ± τ2 = ±
The positive sign is used for the inner edge of the wire and
negative sign is used for the outer edge of the wire. Since the
stress is maximum at the inner edge of the wire, therefore…
Proceed to next slide
Stresses in helical Spring
Maximum shear stress induced in the wire
= Torsional shear stress + Direct shear stress
KS = Shear stress factor = 1 +
Note that max. sheer stress is
appreciable for springs of small
spring index C.
Stresses in helical Spring
In order to consider the effects of both direct shear as well as
curvature of the wire, a Wahl’s stress factor (K) introduced by
A.M. Wahl may be used.
Therefore, maximum shear stress induced in the wire,
τ=Kx
Wahl’s stress factor
increases very
rapidly as the spring
index decreases.
The spring mostly
used in machinery
have spring index
above 3.
Wahl’s stress factor for helical springs
Spring Stresses
The Wahl’s stress factor (K) may be considered as composed of two
sub-factors, KS and KC, such that:
K = KS × KC
where KS = Shear stress factor (Stress factor due to shear), and
KC = Stress concentration factor due to curvature.
According to Wahl, the shear stress correlation factor is KS ,
KS =
Concentric or composite springs
A concentric or composite spring is used for one of the following
purposes :
1. To obtain greater spring force within a given space.
2. To insure the operation of a mechanism in the event of
failure of one of the springs.
The concentric springs for the above two purposes may have
two or more springs and have the same free lengths. Such
springs are used in automobile clutches, valve springs in aircraft,
heavy duty diesel engines and rail-road car suspension systems.
The adjacent coils of the concentric spring are wound in
opposite directions to eliminate any tendency to bind.
If the same material is used, the concentric springs are designed
for the same stress. In order to get the same stress factor (K), it
is desirable to have the same spring index (C ).
Concentric or composite springs
Assuming that both the springs are
made of same material, then the
maximum shear stress
induced in both the springs is
approximately same,
i.e τ1 = τ2
W = Axial load,
W1 = Load shared by outer spring, When stress factor, K1 = K2, then
W2 = Load shared by inner spring,
d1 = Diameter of spring wire of outer spring, d2
= Diameter of spring wire of inner spring, D1 =
Mean diameter of outer spring,
If both the springs are effective
D2 = Mean diameter of inner spring,
throughout their working range,
then their free length and
δ1 = Deflection of outer spring,
deflection are equal, i.e. δ 1 = δ 2
δ2 = Deflection of inner spring,
OR
n1 = Number of active turns of outer
spring, and
n2 = Number of active turns of
inner spring.
Example 2
A concentric spring for an aircraft engine valve is to exert a
maximum force of 5000 N under an axial deflection of 40 mm. Both
the springs have same free length, same solid length and are
subjected to equal maximum shear stress of 850 MPa. If the spring
index for both the springs is 6, find (a) the load shared by each
spring, (b) the main dimensions of both the springs, and (c) the
number of active coils in each spring.
Assume G = 80 kN/mm2 and diametric clearance to be equal to the
difference between the wire diameters.
Solution. Given : W = 5000 N ; δ = 40 mm ; τ1 = τ2 = 850 MPa =
850 N/mm2 ; C = 6 ; G = 80 kN/mm2 = 80 × 103 N/mm2
Let W and W = Load shared by outer and inner spring respectively,
1 2
d and d = Diameter of spring wires for outer and inner springs respectively, and
1 2
D and D = Mean diameter of the outer and inner springs respectively.
1 2
Deflection of helical spring of circular wire
Total active length of the wire,
l = Length of one coil × No. of active coils = D × n
Let θ = Angular deflection of the wire when acted upon by the torque T.
Axial deflection of the spring, δ = θ × D/2
Also, T/J = =
= where J= Polar moment of inertia of the spring wire= X d4
Where d is the spring diameter and G the modulus of rigidity for the
spring wire material.
Considering T/J = , substituting the values of L and J,
= = . Substituting θ into axial deflection of spring
Spring Stresses
Substituting this value of θ into δ = θ × D/2 =
δ= =
= =
Eccentric loading of springs
This occurs when load on the spring does not coincide with the axis of
the spring. In such cases, not only the safe load for the spring reduces,
the stiffness of the spring is also affected.
The eccentric load on the spring increases the stress on one side of the
spring and decreases on the other side. When the load is offset by a
distance ‘e’ from the spring axis, then the safe load on the spring may
be obtained by multiplying the axial load by the factor.
where D is the mean diameter of the spring.
Buckling of compression spring
It has been found experimentally that when the free length of the spring
(LF) is more than four times the mean or pitch diameter (D), then the
spring behaves like a column and may fail by buckling at a comparatively
low load.
The critical axial load (Wcr) that causes buckling may be calculated by
using the following relation, i.e.
Wcr = k × KB × LF
where k = Spring rate or stiffness of the spring = W/δ,
LF = Free length of the spring, and
KB = Buckling factor depending upon the ratio LF / D.
Surge in springs
If the applied load on a spring is a fluctuating type as in the case of
valve spring in internal combustion engines and if the time interval
between the load applications is equal to the time required for the wave
to travel from one end to the other end, then resonance will occur. This
results in very large deflections of the coils and correspondingly very
high stresses. Under these conditions, it is just possible that the spring
may fail. This phenomenon is called surge.
It has been found that the natural frequency of spring should be at least
twenty times the frequency
of application of a periodic load in order to avoid resonance with all
harmonic frequencies up to twentieth order. The natural frequency for
springs clamped between two plates is given by cycles/sec
d = Diameter of the wire, D = Mean diameter of the spring,
n = Number of active turns, G = Modulus of rigidity,
g = Acceleration due to gravity, and ρ = Density of the material of the spring.
Surge in springs
The surge in springs may be eliminated by using the following
methods :
[Link] using friction dampers on the centre coils so that the wave
propagation dies out.
[Link] using springs of high natural frequency.
[Link] using springs having pitch of the coils near the ends different
than at the centre to have different natural frequencies.
The fundamental frequency can be obtained from the relationship
Installation considerations
A typical case of spring installed in cylindrical hole
Recommended spring clearance: 0.1 spring wire
diameter for springs having diameter of 12mm and
above.
Spring design procedure
Design of a helical spring- involves a trial-and-error method,
and the result should be checked by actual testing of the
spring. While designing a spring, the designer(s) have to
consider the following factors:
1. It should be able to carry the designed load.
2. It should have the required load-deflection characteristics.
3. It should not buckle under load.
4. It should also satisfy the given set of constraints, such
as space limitation, the minimum height, the desired life,
the specific vibrational characteristics etc.
5. Material of the spring for the specific atmospheric
conditions such as temperature, humidity etc.
6. Service condition of the spring such as light, average or
severe conditions.
7. Type of the load acting on the spring such as compressive or
tensile.
Spring design procedure
The values to be found by the designer are pitch diameter of coil D,
the wire diameter d, number of turns n, free length Lf, solid length Ls,
spring stiffness q, and type of ends.
Step 1: Select suitable material for spring according to load,
deflection and purpose for which the spring is to be designed.
Step 2: From space limitations, the pitch diameter of coil D is
selected. If no conditions or limitations are given, then assume
suitable value of spring index C usually 5 to l 0.
Step 3: By knowing this data, the wire diameter d can be found.
Step 4: The Wahl's shear stress factor Ks can be calculated by the
equation: KS =
Step 5: Adopt the nearest standard size of wire from the next table
which is ISII37-l959 standard.
Step 6: Detennine the number of coils for the required deflection.
If number of coils is small, the spring will be too soft. So,
reduce the mean diameter of the spring. This change will
Spring design procedure
slightly increase the diameter of wire. If the number of coils is larger,
the mean coil diameter may be increased.
Step 7: Decide the end conditions and select the number of inactive coils.
Step 8: Calculate the free length and solid length of the spring according to
the end conditions
Step 9: Check the spring for buckling
Step 10: Check the natural frequency of the spring to avoid surging by
Step ·11: Compute the spring stiffness.
Spring design
Standard wire diameters
0.020 0.040 O.D75 0.140 0.265 0.500 0.950 1.80 3.35 6.70 13.2
0.021 0.042 0.080 0.150 0.280 0.530 1.000 1.90 3.55 7.10 14.0
0.022 0.045 0.085 0.160 0.300 0.560 1.06 2.00 3.75 7.50 15.0
0.024 0.048 0.090 0.170 0.315 0.600 1.12 2.12 4.00 8.00 16.0
0.025 0.050 0.095 0.180 0.335 0.630 1.18 2.24 4.25 8.50 17.0
0.026 0.053 0.100 0.190 0.355 0.670 1.25 2.36 4.50 9.00 18.0
0.028 0.056 0.106 0.200 0.375 0.710 1.32 2.50 4.75 9.50 19.0
0.030 0.060 0.112 0.2!2 0.400 0.750 !.40 2.65 5.00 !0.0 20.0
0.032 0.063 0.188 0.224 0.425 0.800 1.50 2.80 5.30 !0.6 2!.2
0.036 0.067 0.125 0.236 0.450 0.850 1.60 3.00 5.60 !!.2 22.4
0.038 0.071 0.132 0.250 0.475 0.900 1.70 3.!5 6.00 !1.8 23.6
6.30 !2.5 25.0
Example 3
A gas engine valve spring is to have a mean diameter of
37.5mm. The maximum load it will have to sustain is 450N
with a corresponding deflection of 12.5mm. The spring is to
be made of tempered wire. Since the material is to he
subjected to repeated loading and fatigue must be
considered a low working stress of 300N/mm 2 will be used.
Find the size for wire and number of coils used. (Take rigidity
modulus as 0.8 X 105 N/mm2
Example 4
A spring made from a wire of 1.25mm diameter and
750N/mm2 as its yield strength has a mean diameter of
12.5mm and 14 active coils. Find (i) Stiffness of spring
(ii) Solid height assuming that the ends are squared and
ground. Take modulus of rigidity as 0.8 X 105 N/mm2
Example 5
A helical spring made of C5O steel has an outside
diameter of 80mm and a wire diameter of 12mm. The
spring has to support a maximum axial load of I kN.
Determine the maximum shear
stress and total deflection. If the springs have 10.5 coils
with ends ground flat. Determine also the factor of
safety. Take G ato be 0.89 x 10 2kN/mm 2