Vertical Alignment
Introduction
Once the horizontal alignment has been determined,
the vertical alignment of the section of highway in
question can be addressed
The vertical alignment is composed of a series of
straight-line gradients connected by curves, normally
parabolic in form
The most desirable design is one with long vertical
curves between grade tangents that provides smooth
riding qualities and good visibility with the minimum
amount of earth work.
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Int…
Grades- It is a measure of the inclination, or slope, of
the roadway
It is defined as the rise over the run
Grade affects speed, capacity and cost of operation
MAXIMUM GRADIENTS- greatly affects both the
serviceability and cost of the road
Vehicle operations on gradients are complex and
depend on a number of factors:
• severity and length of gradient;
• level and composition of traffic; and
• the number of overtaking opportunities on the
gradient and in its vicinity.
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Int…
Topography Maximum Gradient (%), for Design Standard
DS1 to DS3 DS4 & DS5 DS6 to DS8 DS9 DS10
D A D A D A D A D A
Flat 3 5 4 6 6 8 6 8 6 8
Rolling 4 6 5 7 7 9 7 9 7 9
Mountainous 6 8 7 9 10 12 13 15 14 16
Escarpment 6 8 7 9 10 12 13 15 14 16
Urban 6 8 7 9 7 9 7 9 7 9
desirable maximum gradients [D] were set to assure user
comfort and to avoid severe reductions in the design speed
If the occasional terrain anomaly is encountered that
requires excessive earthworks to reduce the vertical
alignment to the desirable standard an absolute
maximum gradient[ A] can be used
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MAXIMUM GRADIENTS AT SWITCH BACKS
Where switchback curves are unavoidable in mountainous or
escarpment terrain, there is a need to reduce the maximum
allowable gradient at any point through the curve
The maximum allowable gradient through a switchback curve is
4 percent for road standards DS1-DS5, and 6 percent for DS6-
DS10. Minimum allowable gradient is 0.5%.
MINIMUM GRADIENTS
Under the usual case, the minimum gradient is 0.5%
However, flat and level gradients on uncurbed paved highways
are acceptable when the cross slope and carriageway elevation
above the surrounding ground is adequate to drain the surface
laterally.
With curbed highways or streets, longitudinal gradients should
be provided to facilitate surface drainage.
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CRITICAL LENGTH OF GRADIENT
It is considered to be the maximum length of a designated
upgrade upon which a loaded truck can operate without
unreasonable reduction in speed.
It is defined as the point at which a truck reaches a certain
speed or the point at which it has lost a certain amount of
speed.
It depends on the gradient of the approach and it
decreases as the gradient increases
Where it is necessary to exceed the critical length of
gradient on heavily trafficked roads, it is desirable to
provide either with safe passing distances on the rise, or a
climbing lane for heavy vehicles.
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CLIMBING LANES
It is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous
lanes and has the effect of reducing congestion in the
through lanes by removing slower moving vehicles from
the traffic stream.
A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing the
impact of a steep gradient.
It also enhances road safety by reducing the speed
differential in the through lane
The requirements for climbing lanes are therefore
based on road standard, speed and traffic volume.
Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when
present traffic volumes are greater than 400 ADT, i.e.,
for trunk and link roads
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…CLIMBING LANES
Critical Length of Gradient Maximum
Gradient
Design Class above which a Climbing Lane Desirable Length of
(%)
is required (m) Gradient (m)
DS2 &3 4 300 900
DS2, 3 & 4 5 240 800
DS2, 3 & 4 6 200 700
DS2, 3 & 4 7 170 600
DS2, 3 & 4 8 150 500
DS2, 3 & 4 9 130 400
DS2, 3 & 4 10 Required 400
DS4 11 Required 400
DS4 12 Required 400
20 km/h speed reduction is expected for a truck.
They must be clearly marked and, where possible, should end on
level or downhill sections where speed differences between
different classes of vehicles are lowest to allow safe and efficient
merging maneuvers.
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Vertical Curves
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Vertical Curves
Most vertical curves are equal-tangent curves.
In highway design, the following should be known before starting
any vertical curve calculations
Grades of the disjointed segments of roadway
Design speed of the roadway
Sight distance
The first step in the design of a vertical curve is the calculation of
the curve length.
Design Criteria to be considered in selecting length of the curve
are:
Sight distance
Riding comfort which depends on rate of radial acceleration
Drainage Control
Aesthetics
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Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are
characterized by the length L
and algebraic difference A of
corresponding grades g1 & g2
rate of change of slope of
parabolas is a constant; i.e.
d2 y
2
r
dx
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Vertical Curves
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Vertical Curves
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Example 1
Two grade lines intersect at Station 2+200
where the point of vertical intersection (PVI)
elevation is 239.5 m. The starting grade is –6 %
and the ending grade is +2 %. The length of
curve is 400 m. compute the elevation at
station 2+200.
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Solution
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Length of crest vertical curves
Crest vertical curves are curves that connect inclined
sections of roadway
SSD is usually the controlling sight distance in determining
the length of crest curves; sometimes PSD is also the case.
L = Length of the crest vertical curve (ft) For SSD
S = Sight distance (ft) H1=3.5ft
H2=0.5ft
A = The change in grades ( |G2-G1| as a percent)
For PSD
h1 = Height of the driver's eyes above the ground (ft) H1=3.5ft
h2 = Height of the object above the roadway (ft) H2=4.25ft
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Length of crest vertical curves
• Vertical curves should
also be comfortable for
the driver, aesthetically
pleasing, safe, and
capable of facilitating
proper drainage; in
addition to satisfying
sight distance
requirements.
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Example 2
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Sag Vertical Curves
Sag vertical curves are curves that connect
descending grades, forming a bowl or a sag
Once again, the sight distance is the parameter that
is normally employed to find the length of the curve
The length of sag vertical curves is also determined
by considering driver comfort, drainage, and
aesthetics.
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Sag Vertical Curves
L = Curve length (ft)
S = Sight distance (ft) [normally the SSD]
200(H S tan())
B = Beam upward divergence (°) ;[1°] L 2S
A
H = Height of the headlights (ft) ;[2 f]
A = Change in grade [|G2-G1| as a %]
AS 2
L
200 (H S tan( ))
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Riding comfort
The effect of comfort Let radial acceleration be a,
of driving in vertical a = V2/R
direction is more Since the parabola practically
coincide with a circle of radius
pronounced in sag
R, L = ΔR, where Δ is in radians.
curves than on crest
Expressing Δ in percentage
vertical curves. of the difference in the
Riding is comfortable downward and upward
on sag curves when grades, Δ =A/100
radial acceleration Combining all the above
does not exceed equations L = (V2A)/100a
0.3m/sec2. If a = 0.3m/sec2, then L= V2A/30
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Sight Distance at underpass Structures
• When sag curves occur
at an under pass, the
overhead structure
may shorten the sight
distance.
• There fore, the
minimum length of
vertical curve which
will provide a specified
sight distance for
under pass structures
should also be
considered.
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Example 3
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Combination of Horizontal & Vertical Alignment
Alignment Defects due to Mis-phasing
Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road
implies their coordination so that the line of the road
appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the
creation of hazards and visual defects.
This issue is important in the design of high-speed roads
on which a driver must be able to anticipate changes in
both horizontal and vertical alignment well within the safe
stopping distance.
It becomes also more important with small radius curves.
Defects may be purely visual (aesthetically displeasing) or
may endanger the safety of the user by concealing
hazards on the road ahead.
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Combination of Horizontal & Vertical Alignment
Types of mis-phasing and Corrective Action
When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately
separated or when they are coincident, no phasing
problem occurs and no corrective action is required.
Phasing is achieved either by separating the curves or
by adjusting their lengths such that vertical and
horizontal curves begin at a common station and end at
a common station.
In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is
sufficient if only one end of each of the curves is at a
common station.
Here below are the different cases of mis-phasing:
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Types of Mis-phasing & Corrective Measures
1. Vertical Curve Overlaps One
End of the Horizontal Curve
• Delayed perception of the change
of dir. at the start of the H curve
(less SSD due to V curve)
• Hazardous
• Vehicles tend to increase speed on
the down gradient following the
highest point of the crest >>
unexpected change of direction
DANGEROUS
• corrective measures- use the
three measures listed in the
previous slide
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Types of Mis-phasing & Corrective Measures
2. Insufficient Separation between the Curves
Appearance of a false reverse curve on the
outside edge-line at the beginning of the H
curve (See d).
• Correction: increase the separation between
the curves OR make the curves concurrent
(see a).
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Types of Mis-phasing & Corrective Measures
3. Both Ends of the Vertical Curve
Lie on the Horizontal Curve
• If both ends of a crest curve lie
on a sharp horizontal curve, the
radius of the horizontal curve
may appear to the driver to
decrease abruptly over the
length of the crest curve.
• If the vertical curve is a sag
curve, the radius of the
horizontal curve may appear to
increase.
• The corrective action is to make
both ends of the curves
coincident
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Types of Mis-phasing & Corrective Measures
4. Vertical Curve Overlaps Both Ends of the Horizontal Curve
• If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a
hazard may be created because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden
change of direction during the passage of the vertical curve while sight
distance is reduced.
• The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If
the horizontal curve is less sharp, a hazard may still be created if the
crest occurs off the horizontal curve. This is because the change of
direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve will then occur on a
downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where vehicles may be increasing
speed).
• The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end so as
to bring the crest on to the horizontal curve.
• No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no crest is combined
with a gentle horizontal curve.
• If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip, depending on
the “hand” of the horizontal curve will appear in the road alignment.
• The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to
separate them.
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