Jimma Institute of Technology

School of Biomedical Engineering

Course title: Human Physiology

By Zelalem B. (MSc, PhD Fellow)

zelalembanjaw9@[Link]

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November, 2022
Chapter-1:Introduction to human physiology
Outlines

1. The study subject of physiology

2. The need for biomedical engineers to understand physiology

3. Homeostasis

¨Feedback control systems

4. Hierarchy of the human body

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 Objectives

At the end of the unit students should be able to:

1. Define the subject physiology

2. Describe the need to understand physiology for biomedical Engineers

3. Understand Homeostasis and feed back control system of the body

4. Describe Hierarchy of the human body

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 1. The study subject of physiology

¨Physiology literally means ‘study of nature’ (Greek: physis = nature; logia=study of)

¨Physiology is the science that seeks to explain the physical and chemical mechanisms that
are responsible for the Origin, development and progression of life

¨Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its component
parts, including all its chemical and physical processes

¨Human physiology attempts to explain the specific characteristics and mechanisms of the
human body that make it a living being.

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 2. The need to understand physiology for biomedical Engineers

¨Why biomedical engineers should be thoroughly familiar with physiological processes of the
human body?  Biological principles

¨What Biomedical instruments do you know?

¨Do you know the concept ‘Precision medicine’?

¨What is the most desirable outcome of a biomedical engineering design?

Effectiveness, efficiency, biocompatible materials, acceptable operational features, easy
installation.

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 3. Homeostasis

¨Homeostasis is the maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment

(Extracellular fluid).

¨Homeostasis is the maintenance of a steady state in the body despite changes in the external
environment

¨Essentially all organs of the body perform their functions to maintain constant conditions in the
ECF. For instance:
 Lungs maintain the normal concentration of respiratory gases in blood.

 The CVS transports required substances and removes waste produces,

 The kidneys maintain constant ionic concentration and

 The GIT provides nutrients. 6

 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
3 Input: Control
center 4 Output:
Information Information sent
sent along along efferent
afferent pathway to
pathway to

Receptor (sensor) Effector

2
Change
detected
by receptor

5 Response of
effector feeds
back to influence
1 Stimulus: magnitude of
Produces Im b stimulus and
ala
change nce returns
in variable variable to
homeostasis
Variable (in homeostasis)
Imb
ala
nce

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 3. Homeostasis cont’d…
¨Examples of Homeostatically Regulated Variables include:
Body Temperature

Blood Composition (ions, sugars, proteins…)

Concentrations of O2 and CO2 in the blood

Acid-Base balance (pH)

Blood osmolarity

Blood pressure, cardiac output, cardiac rate

Respiratory rate and depth

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 Disturbances of homeostasis

• Deviations in normal ranges = pathology

• Hypo- or hyperthermia,

• hypo- or hypercapnea

• Acidosis or alkalosis,

• Hypoxia or hyperoxia

• Hypo- or hypercalemia

• Hypo- or hyperglycemia

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 Toxic Cancer
Chemicals Autoimmune
Trauma Disease
Viruses Sickle cell anemia
Bacteria Diabetes

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 Regulatory systems of homeostasis

 There are two systems in the body designed for controlling body’s homeostasis:
1. The nervous system and

2. The endocrine system

– However, their manner of regulation varies.

Common Properties of Hormones and Neurotransmitters

– Both are released in small amount

– Both have receptors on the target organs

– Both act by altering their target organs

– Both work towards common goal →Homeostasis

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 Homeostasis cont’d…

¨But there are differences:

• Nervous regulation is faster

• That of the hormones is slower

• Nervous regulation effects are diffused

• That of the hormones is mostly localized

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 Homeostasis regulation cont’d…

1. The nervous regulatory mechanism

• The nervous system regulates body functions through generation of action potential
and release of neurotransmitters.

• Neurotransmitters are chemicals released form nerve endings.

• To bring about complete communication among various structures of the body,

there should exist what is known as reflex arc.

• Reflex arc is a path of neural reflex

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  The reflex arc is composed of five structures:

Stimulus (Mechanical, chemical, thermal, etc)

Receptor (Neural transduction)

Sensory System

Integrating center (Brain and spinal cord)

Motor System (FB)

Effectors (Muscle, gland) =Desirable biological responses 14

 Homeostasis cont’d…

2. The hormonal regulatory mechanism

¨Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands, and transported via blood to
the target organs including other glands.

Examples:

Parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone to the kidneys, bone and small intestine =
[Ca2+]

Aldosterone from adrenal cortex  to the kidneys, intestine   [Na+]

Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) causes water retention from the kidneys and intestine.

¨An organism is said to be in homeostasis when its internal environment contains an optimum
amount of nutrients, gases, electrolytes, water, hormones, enzymes and T o 15
Ca2+ homeostasis

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 Blood glucose homeostasis
1.
• The L
i
• Glyco ver . GIT e
g 2 os
• Glyco enesis G l u c
tion
Glu geno o rp
co n l abs
eog ysis
ene
sis
Normal BGC
4. Brain
70-110 mg/dl All neurons
Utilize glucose

K id ney s
3. se
Gluco ption
r
reabso
5. Hormones
Hyperglycemic hormones
Hypoglycemic hormone

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 Normal Ranges of Some Important Parameters
1. Body fluid volume = 40 L
ECF = 15L
ICF = 25L
2. Osmolality = 300 mosm/L, (285 – 300 mosm/L)
3. Body T. = 36.3 – 37.1OC
4. pH = 7.35 – 7.45
5. Blood Gases
PCO2 = 35 – 45 mm Hg
PO2 = 40 – 104 mm Hg
6. Electrolytes (ECF)
Ca2+ = 10 mg/dL or 5 meq/L
K+ = 4 meq/L
Na+= 142 meq/L
Cl- = 103 meq/L
HCO3- = 27 meq/27
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 Normal Ranges of Some Important Parameters
7. Waste Products
Bilirubin = 0.5 mg/dl
Creatinine = 0.6 – 1.5 mg/dL
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) = 8 – 25 mg/dL
Uric acid (s): Women = 2.3 – 6.6 mg/dL
Men = 3.6 – 8.5 mg/dL
8. Blood Glucose level (fasting): 70 – 110 mg/dL
9. Arterial Blood pressure (systemic circulation).
Systolic pressure = 120 mm Hg (90 – 140 mm Hg)
Diastolic pressure = 80 mm Hg (60 – 90 mm Hg)
Pulse pressure = 40 mm Hg
Mean BP = 96 mm Hg
Pulmonary AP = 25/10
Cardiac output = 5 L/min
Blood Flow = 5 L /min
10. RBC count = 4-6 millions/mm3
WBC count = 4000-11,000/mm3
Hemoglobin (Hb)= 12-18 g/dl in Females, 14-20 g/dl in Males 19
Normal values for electrolytes

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 Feedback Control Mechanisms of the Homeostasis

¨The human body has thousands of control systems that operate to keep homeostasis in it.

¨Feedback control mechanism is a means by which our body tries to maintain its
homeostatic environment.

¨There are two main types of feed back mechanisms:

A. The Negative Feedback Mechanism (NFM)

B. The Positive Feedback Mechanism (PFM)

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A. Negative Feedback Mechanism (NFM)

¨Negative feedback is the initiation of responses that counter deviations of a

controlled variable from its normal range and it is the major control process used to
maintain a stable internal environment.

¨It works by producing an effect which opposes the previous condition (the initiating
stimulus) of the organ.

For example: If the PCO2 is increased in the blood, the NFM stimulates the respiratory center,

which has an effect on decreasing PCO2 in blood to normal via increasing Pulmonary
ventilation rate .
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 NFM control cont’d…

¨In general, if some factors (parameters) become excessive or too little, a control system
initiates the NFM, which consists of a series of changes that return the factors toward
certain mean values (set point or normal values), thus, maintaining homeostasis.

¨Most homeostatic values of the body are controlled by NFM.

¨Variables controlled by negative feedback mechanism includes:

• Control of Body temperature (BT)

• Control of Arterial blood pressure (ABP)

• Control of Blood glucose level (BGL)

• Blood gases level and many others

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 Human Thermoregulation

¨Brain senses change in blood temperature

• if overheating, vessels dilate in the skin and sweating begins

• if too cold, vasoconstriction in the skin and shivering begins 1-24

 NFM cont’d…

• A negative feedback control system contains the following elements:

1. A set point value, which is at the center of the normal range of a variable and is treated
by the control system as the target value

2. Sensors that continuously monitor the controlled variable

3. A comparator (control center), which interprets input from the sensors to determine
when deviations from the set point have occurred
• The comparator initiates a counter response

4. Effectors are the mechanisms that restore the set point to its normal level

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 2. The Positive Feedback Mechanism (PFM)

¨It works by producing an effect which enhances or repeats the same action like that of the
starting stimulus.
Self-amplifying change

leads to change in the same direction

¨The PFM is also called vicious circle.

¨Normal way of producing rapid changes

occurs with childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and generation of nerve signals

¨Most of the time positive feedback mechanism is part of overall negative feedback
mechanism 26
 PFM cont’d…

¨Some of the action of PFM disturbs the internal environment and cause disease and death.

For example, if a person suffers from a heart attack that damages the heart function, then
the heart pumps less amount of blood to the tissues including the heart muscle and brain.

↓ heart pump ability  ↓blood supply to all tissues including heart  this further ↓heart
contraction and the heart becomes weaker and weaker that may lead to death

Because the heart muscle does not get sufficient nutrients and O2, the activity of the heart
becomes weaker and weaker and the weaker the heart the lesser blood is pumped and then
death may occur.
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 Examples of the PFM
1. Generation and propagation of the action potential.
– Stimulated nerve fiber  opening of Na+ channels  entry of few Na+
stimulates the opening of more and more Na+ channels

2. Blood clotting is an example of a very valuable use of PFM.

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3. LH surge: the positive feedback mechanism

GnRH HT

Pituitary
activates

LH

Ovary

Estrogen
>200 µg/ml
LH-surge immediately before ovulation 29
 [Link] Example of Positive Feedback: Giving Birth

¨The only way to stop this kind of phenomenon is removing the stimulus
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 4. Hierarchical organization of the human body

¨Chemical level cellular level Tissue level Organ level  Organ system level
Organism level

¨Example of cell- sperm cell, Ovule….

¨Example of Tissue-Epithelial tissue…

¨Example of organ-Heart, Lungs, kidneys….

¨Organ system- human being has 11 organ system

¨Organism-Ex-human, Dog, Birds…..

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 The 11 organ Systems

1. Skeletal System

¨ The basic framework of the body is a system of over 200 bones

with their joints, collectively known as the skeleton.

¨ Protects and supports body organs.

¨ Provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement.

¨ Blood cells are formed within bones.

¨ Stores minerals.

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2. Muscular System

¨ Body movements are due to the action of the muscles which are

attached to the bones

¨ Other are present in the walls of such organs as the intestine and the heart.

¨ Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion and facial

Expression

¨ Maintains posture

¨ Produces heat 33
3. Cardiovascular and lymphatic system)

¨ Cardiovascular system (heart and blood vessels)

¨ blood is pumped to all the body tissues, bringing with it food, oxygen and other substances,
and carrying away waste materials.

¨ Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.

¨ The heart pumps blood.

4. lymphatic system

¨ Lymphatic system (lymph vessels and lymph nodes)

 Both Cardiovascular and lymphatic system are collectively called Circulatory System
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5. The Digestive System

¨ It comprises all organs which have to do with taking in food and converting the useful

parts of it into substances that the body cells can use.

¨ Examples of these organs are the mouth, the teeth, and the alimentary tract

(esophagus, stomach, intestine, and accessory organs such as the liver and the

pancreas).

¨ Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.

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6. The Respiratory System

¨ Includes the lungs and the passages leading to and from them.

¨ Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.

¨ The gaseous changes occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.

7. Integumentary System

¨ The word “integument” means “skin.”

¨ It includes the hair, nails, sweat and oil glands, and other related structures.

¨ Forms the external body covering.

¨ Protects deeper tissues from injury.

¨ Synthesis vitamin D.

¨ Site of cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors, and sweat and oil glands.

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8. The Urinary System

¨ This is also called the excretory system.

¨ Its main components are the kidneys, the ureters, the bladder and the urethra.

¨ Its purpose is to filter out and rid the body of certain waste products taken by the blood from
the cells. (Note that other waste products are removed via the digestive and respiratory
systems).

¨ Eliminates nitrogenous waste from the body.

¨ Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.

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9. The Nervous System
¨ The brain, the spinal cord and the nerves all make up this very complex system by which all
parts of the body are controlled and coordinated.
¨ The organs of special sense (such as the eyes, ears, taste buds, and organs of smell),
sometimes classed as a separate sensory system, together with the sense of tough, receive
stimuli from the outside world, which are then converted into impulses that are transmitted
to the brain.
¨ The brain determines to a great extent the body’s responses to messages from without
and within, and in it occur such higher functions as memory and reasoning.
 Fast-acting control system of the body.
 Responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
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10. The Endocrine System

¨ A few scattered organs known as endocrine glands

produce special substances called hormones, which

regulate such body functions as growth, food utilization

within the cells, and reproduction.

 Examples of endocrine glands are the thyroid and

pituitary glands.

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11. The Reproductive System

¨ This system includes the external sex organs and all related inner

structures which are concerned with the production of new individuals.

¨ Overall function is production of offspring.

¨ Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm
to the female reproductive tract.

¨ Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormone; remaining structures serve as sites for
fertilization and development of fetus.

¨ Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.

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 Reading Assignment

 Body fluids and its compartments

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Thank you!

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