Chapter 1
Sound wave and wave motion
• What is wave?
• Types of waves and examples.
• Characteristics of wave motion.
• Wave terminology.
• Graphical and mathematical representation of wave.
• Types of Mechanical wave.
• Progressive wave.
• Superposition principle
• Stationary wave.
• Reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization of wave.
• Types of oscillations.
What is a wave?
• A wave is a disturbance which travels from one place to
another through the vibration of particles of medium
without net transport of the particles.
• A wave is a means of transferring energy from one place
to another. In general, the wave is in motion, it is also
called wave motion.
• If you poke a floating ball, it oscillates up and down and,
the oscillation spreads outward from where it started.
What is a wave?
Motion of electrical and magnetic field :
Motion of particle in SHM:
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter.
Frequency= waves/time
TYPES OF WAVES
• Waves are classified into different types according
to their natures :
Mechanical Electromagnetic
1. These waves require a 1. These waves does not
material medium for their require any material
propagation. medium for their
propagation.
[Link] waves are caused to
2. These waves are caused to propagate by the electromagnetic
propagate by the mechanical force. force.
[Link] cannot travel in [Link] can travel in vacuum
vacuum. with speed 3 × 108 m/s.
4. Water waves, waves on a 4. Radio waves, X-Rays, Light
rope, sound etc. etc.
5. The medium must possess
elasticity, inertia and low
resistance for motion.
Note:
• For the propagation of mechanical wave
through medium, medium must have high
elasticity, inertia and less damping.
• The mechanical wave is often called elastic
wave.
• During wave motion, there is no net
movement of the particles of the medium but
the particles of the medium vibrate simple
harmonically.
Wave Motion
• Waves transfer energy.
• Matter has no net movement.
Characteristics of wave motion
Wave motion is the form of disturbance which propagates from
one place to another.
When it propagates in a medium, particles of the medium vibrates
simple harmonically about their mean position.
Each particle of medium starts vibrating a little later then
preceding one.
It has fixed speed that depends upon the nature of the medium.
wave speed is different from the particle velocity in a medium.
when it travels in a medium, there is a continuous phase
difference among the successive medium particles.
It transfers energy as well as momentum from one point to
another.
wave exhibits the phenomena like reflection, refraction,
interference and diffraction. (Polarization is shown only by
transverse wave.)
The vibrating particle posses both kinetic and elastic potential
energy.
Wave terminology
I. An area where the particles in a medium are spaced close together is called a compression and the area where the
particles in a medium are spread out is called a rarefaction.
II. The highest point of the wave above the rest/equilibrium/reference position is the crest and the lowest point below
the rest position is the trough.
iii. Amplitude( a or r )
• The amplitude of a wave is the maximum
displacement of the medium from its
rest/reference/equilibrium position.
• The more energy a wave has, the greater is its
amplitude.
iv. Frequency( f )
• Any periodic motion has a frequency, which is the
number of complete cycles in one second.
• Frequency is measured in cycles per second, or hertz
(Hz).
• A wave’s frequency equals the frequency of the
vibrating source producing the waves.
v. Time period (T)
• Any motion that repeats at regular time intervals is called
periodic motion.
• The time taken by the wave to complete one cycle is called
time period.
• T= 1/f
• Angular velocity (ω) = 2πf = 2π/T
vi. Wavelength ( λ )
• Wavelength is the distance travelled by the wave in one
complete cycle or it is the distance between any two
consecutive crest or trough.
• Increasing the frequency of a wave decreases the
wavelength.
vii. Wave speed (v )
• It is the distance travelled by the wave in one
second.
• Formula for the speed of waves
Speed = Wavelength x Frequency
V=λ×f
Speed = m/s
Wavelength = m
Frequency = 1/s or Hz
viii. Phase ( Ø )
• It is the parameter that completely describe the state i.e. position and direction of
wave.
• It is measured in angle, called phase angle.
In phase, out of phase and exactly out of phase
Y1 = a sin (ωt ) and Y2 = a sin (ωt )
Y1 = a sin (ωt ) and Y2 = a sin (ωt +Ø )
Y1 = a sin (ωt ) and Y2 = a sin (ωt+1800)
Graphical representation of wave
• Wave motion can be
mathematically
described by a sine or
cosine wave.
Examples of different types of waves
• Transverse
– Waves on a string
– Electromagnetic waves
• Longitudinal waves
– Sound
• Transverse and Longitudinal
– Water
– seismic
• Probability waves
– Electron, proton, and matter waves - quantum waves
Types of Mechanical wave
• Longitudinal wave
• Transverse wave
Longitudinal wave
• A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles of the
medium vibrate along the direction of wave travels.
• It travels in the form of compressions and rarefactions.
Note:
• Longitudinal waves can be propagated in all media i.e.
solid, liquid and gaseous because these medium
possess Bulk modulus of elasticity or Volume elasticity.
• Also called Pressure waves because of the variation of
pressure at different points in the medium.
• Pressure and density is maximum at compression and is
minimum at rarefaction.
• The phase difference between particle velocity and the
wave velocity is 0 or π.
• Longitudinal waves can not be polarized.
Transverse wave:
• A transverse wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium
vibrate perpendicularly to the direction of propagation of wave.
• It travels in the form of crests and troughs.
Note:
• Transverse waves can not be propagated through the gaseous
medium and inside the liquid. It passes only through solid and on
the surface of liquid because of Shear modulus of elasticity or
modulus of rigidity.
• The phase difference between particle velocity and the wave
velocity is π/2.
• There is no pressure and density variation during propagation of
transverse wave in the medium.
• All electromagnetic waves are transverse but all transverse waves
are not electromagnetic.
• Transverse waves can be polarized i.e polarization is the
characteristics of transverse wave.
Progressive wave (Traveling wave):
Waves which travels forward from one place to another: are called
traveling or progressive waves (i. e. from source to detector). For
example: water wave, sound wave, light wave etc.
A traveling wave can be represented as any function of kx-wt or kx+wt
such that kx-wt or kx+wt is a constant. Traveling wave equation can be
represented as
2y 1 2y
which satisfies the Wave Equation:
2
2 2
x v t
Mathematical description of a Traveling wave
Consider a traveling wave which starts from the origin O and travels with
speed v along the positive X-axis as in graph. The particle at the origin o at
any time vibrates simple harmonically as
y = a sinωt
Since the particle to the right of the origin starts vibrating after definite time
interval [Link] the particle at O, the phase lag goes on increasing in this
direction. So, if φ be the phase difference, the particle at P at a distance x
from origin vibrates according to the equation
y = a sin (ωt – φ)……..(1)
We know, if the two particles are separated by a distance λ, they will differ
by a phase of 2π. Therefore, the phase φ of the particle P at a distance
x is φ = (2π/λ) x.
Cont’d.
Therefore,
y = a sin (ωt - 2πx/λ) …... (2)
Since k = 2π/λ is called wave number,
y = a sin (ωt - kx) ……..(3)
Since ω = 2πf = 2π (v/λ), the equation is given by,
y = a sin [(2πvt/λ) - (2πx/λ)]
y = a sin 2π/λ (vt – x) …... (4)
Since, ω = 2π/T, the equation (2) can also be written as,
y = a sin 2π (t/T – x/λ) …... (5)
If the wave travels in opposite direction, the equation becomes,
y = a sin 2π (t/T + x/λ) …... (6)
These are the different forms of progressive wave equations.
Principle of Superposition
Statement:
“When two or more then two
waves are passing through a
medium at the same time then the
resultant displacement at a point
is equal to vector sum ( Algebraic
sum ) of there individual sum of
there displacements.”
This principle is used to
explain following phenomena:
(a) Stationary or standing wave
(b) Beats
(c) Interference
'
y (x,t) y1 (x,t) y 2 (x,t)
Standing waves
v v
y ' (x,t) y m sin(kx t) y m sin(kx t)
2
'
y (x,t) 2y m sin(kx)cost
T
Stationary wave/ Standing wave
• When two progressive wave of the same frequency and amplitude, travelling through a
medium with the same speed but in opposite direction superimpose on each other and
they give rise to a resultant wave called stationary wave. In stationary wave, it does not
seem to be moving and there is no net flow of energy, along the wave, that’s why it is
named so
• When a stationary wave is formed due to the super position of the two waves of equal
frequency and amplitude travelling in opposite direction, the points of maximum and
zero amplitude are resulted alternatively. The points where amplitude is maximum are
called anti nodes (AN) and those with zero amplitude are called nodes (N).
Analytical treatment of Stationary wave
( Reflection from Open boundary)
• Consider a progressive wave travelling in positive X-axis and
another wave travelling in negative X-axis. The equation of
the wave travelling along positive X-axis is given by,
• The equation of the wave travelling along negative X-axis is
given by
• According to the super position principle, the displacement
of resultant wave is given by,
• y = y 1 + y2
• = asin(ωt – kx) + asin(ωt + kx)
• =a
• = 2a sin cos
• = 2a sinωt coskx
• = Asinωt
This is the displacement of resultant wave and A= 2aCoskx
is the amplitude of resultant wave.
This implies that the amplitude of the stationary wave does not remains
constant i.e. amplitude become zero at some points and maximum at some
other points.
Special cases:
Case 1:Condition for maximum amplitude(i.e. position of antinodes)
• We wave,
The amplitude of resultant wave,
A= 2acoskx
For amplitude to be maximum, coskx= ± 1 = cos nπ , n= o,1,2,3,4,…
These are the positions of antinodes where amplitude become maximum.
Case 2 : Condition for minimum amplitude ( i.e. position of nodes)
For minimum amplitude,
These are the position of nodes where amplitude
is minimum
Note:
• The distance between any two consecutive
nodes or antinodes is λ/2 .
• The distance between any two consecutive
node and antinode is λ/4 .
Standing wave (reflection from closed
boundary)
• Y1 = asin(ωt-kx) (incident wave)
• Y2 = asin(ωt+kx+π) (reflected wave)
• = -asin(ωt+kx)
• Y= -2a sinkx cosωt (resultant stationary wave)
Characteristics of Stationary wave
• The stationary wave are produced when two progressive waves of equal
frequency and amplitude travel in medium in opposite direction.
• In the stationary wave, the disturbance or energy is not transmitted from
particle to particle.
• At nods, the particles of the medium are permanently at rest.
• The particle at the anti-nodes vibrates with the maximum amplitude
which is equal to twice the amplitude of either waves.
• The period of vibration of stationary wave is equal to that of either of
wave.
• The amplitude of particles on either side of an antinode gradually
decreases to zero.
• Pressure variation is maximum at node and minimum at antinodes.
• Strain is maximum at nodes and minimum at antinodes.
Differential equation of wave motion
• We have, the wave equation of plane progressive wave is
• y=asin(ωt-kx)………..(1)
• Differentiating equation (1) with respect to time t, we get
• = ωa cos(ωt-kx)
• And again differentiating
• = -ω2a sin(ωt-kx)
• = -(4π2v2/λ2)a sin(ωt-kx) …………..(2)
• When the equation (1) is differentiated with respect to x, we get
• = - kacos(ωt-kx)
•
• = - (4π2/λ2)a sin(ωt-kx)………………(3)
From equation (2) and (3), we get
• Which is the required wave equation.
Natural frequency
Everybody in this universe has tendency to oscillate
with a particular frequency in the absence of any
driving force/damping force, called natural
frequency. It is often called eigenfrequency.
It depends on the shape and size of the body and
elastic property of the body.
Free/Natural/ Undamped
Oscillation(vibration)
The oscillation that runs in the absence of resistive force/ driving force/
external force such that the amplitude of oscillation always remains
constant with time is called free oscillation. In free oscillation , there is no
resistive force, so the body keeps on vibrating forever. The vibration of
simple pendulum in vacuum is example of free vibration.
The free vibration of an object is an ideal concept.
Damped oscillation
The oscillation that takes place by the application of damping/resistive force
such that the amplitude of vibration decreases continuously with time and
finally the oscillation collapsed is called damped oscillation.
Forced Oscillation(Vibration)
In general ,all the vibration dies out after some time due to the presence of
damping force. In order to sustain the vibration for long time, an external
periodic force has to be applied.
If the body oscillates continuously by the application of external periodic
force with the frequency of applied force then such type of oscillation is
called forced oscillation.
Resonant Oscillation
• In forced vibration, if the frequency of externally applied periodic force
become exactly same with the natural frequency of the body then the
body oscillates with maximum amplitude. Such type of oscillation is called
resonant oscillation and corresponding phenomena is called resonance.
Change in phase during the reflection of
wave
