Chapter 1:

Computer Networks and

the Internet
Roadmap
▪ What is the Internet?

▪ Network Edge
▪ end systems, access networks, links

▪ Network Core
▪ packet switching, circuit switching, network structure

▪ Delay, loss, throughput in networks

▪ Protocol layers, Service models

▪ Networks under attack: security

▪ History
What’s the Internet: “Nuts and Bolts”view
▪ Internet : The Internet is a computer network that interconnects hundreds of millions of
computing devices throughout the world
▪ Hosts or End systems : Systems that are connected to Internet
▪ Communication links : Coaxial cable, Copper wire, Optical fiber, and Radio spectrum
▪ Transmission rate : measured in bits/second
▪ Packet switches types : Routers and Link-layer switches
▪ Routers : Used in network core
▪ Link layer switches : Used in access networks
▪ Protocols : controls the sending and receiving of information within the Internet
▪ Most important protocols in the Internet :
▪ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
▪ Internet Protocol (IP)

▪ Internet standards are developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
▪ The IETF standards documents are called requests for comments (RFCs)
▪ There are currently more than 6,000 RFCs
Some pieces of the
Internet
What’s the Internet : A Service View
▪ An infrastructure that provides services to applications :
▪ electronic mail, Web surfing, social networks, instant messaging, Voiceover-IP (VoIP), video
streaming, distributed games, peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing, television over the Internet,
remote login etc.

▪ The applications are said to be distributed applications, since they involve multiple end
systems that exchange data with each other.
▪ End systems attached to the Internet provide an Application Programming Interface
(API)
▪ Internet API is a set of rules that the sending program must follow so that the Internet
can deliver the data to the destination program.
What is a Protocol
▪ A protocol defines the format and the order of messages exchanged between two or
more communicating entities, as well as the actions taken on the transmission and/or
receipt of a message or other event.

▪ A Human Analogy:
▪ When people run different protocols, the protocols do not interoperate, and no useful
work can be accomplished.
▪ It takes two or more communicating entities running the same protocol in order to
accomplish a task.
A human protocol and a computer network protocol
What is a Protocol
▪ Network Protocols:
▪ A network protocol is like a human protocol, except that the entities exchanging messages
and taking actions are hardware or software components.
▪ All activity in the Internet that involves two or more communicating remote entities is
governed by a protocol.
▪ Example:
▪ hardware-implemented protocols in two physically connected computers control the flow of bits on
the “wire” between the two network interface cards
▪ congestion-control protocols in end systems control the rate at which packets are transmitted
between sender and receiver
▪ protocols in routers determine a packet’s path from source to destination
The Network Edge
The Network Edge
▪ End systems : the computers and other devices connected to the Internet
▪ End systems include:
▪ desktop computers (e.g., desktop PCs, Macs, and Linux boxes),
▪ servers (e.g., Web and e-mail servers), and
▪ mobile computers (e.g., laptops, smartphones, and tablets).

▪ Hosts are divided into two categories:

▪ Clients: desktop and mobile PCs, smartphones, etc.
▪ Servers: more powerful machines that store and distribute Web pages, stream video, relay e-
mail, etc.
End-system interaction
1. The Network Edge : Access Networks
▪ Access network:
▪ the network that physically connects an end system to the first router

▪ First router is also known as the “edge router”

Access Networks
Home Access: DSL, Cable, FTTH, Dial-Up, and Satellite
links
▪ Two most prevalent types of broadband residential access are:
▪ Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and
▪ Cable

▪ Digital Subscriber Line

▪ The residential telephone line carries both data and traditional telephone signals which are
encoded at different frequencies:
▪ A high-speed downstream channel, in the 50 kHz to 1 MHz band
▪ A medium-speed upstream channel, in the 4 kHz to 50 kHz band
▪ An ordinary two-way telephone channel, in the 0 to 4 kHz band
Home Access: DSL, Cable, FTTH, Dial-Up, and Satellite
▪ Splitter: separates the data and telephone signals
▪ DSLAM: separates the data and phone signals
Home Access: DSL, Cable, FTTH, Dial-Up, and Satellite
▪ Cable Internet access:
▪ makes use of the cable television company’s existing cable television infrastructure.

▪ Fiber optics connect the cable head end to neighborhood-level junctions

▪ Coaxial cable is then used to reach individual houses and apartments
▪ Each neighborhood junction typically supports 500 to 5,000 homes
Home Access: DSL, Cable, FTTH, Dial-Up, and Satellite
▪ Cable modem termination system (CMTS):
▪ turning the analog signal sent from the cable modems in many downstream homes back into
digital format.

A hybrid fiber-coaxial access network

Home Access: DSL, Cable, FTTH, Dial-Up, and Satellite
▪ FTTH(fiber to the home):
▪ up-and-coming technology that promises even higher speeds

▪ Concept is to provide an optical fiber path from the CO directly to the home

FTTH Internet Access

Home Access: DSL, Cable, FTTH, Dial-Up, and Satellite
▪ Each home has an optical network terminator (ONT)
▪ ONT is connected by dedicated optical fiber to a neighborhood splitter
▪ The splitter combines several homes onto a single, shared optical fiber, which connects
to an optical line terminator (OLT)
▪ The OLT, providing conversion between optical and electrical signals, connects to the
Internet via a telco router
▪ In the home, users connect a home router to the ONT and access the Internet via this
home router
Home Access: DSL, Cable, FTTH, Dial-Up, and Satellite
▪ In locations where DSL, cable, and FTTH are not available
▪ a satellite link can be used to connect a residence to the Internet at speeds of more than 1
Mbps
▪ StarBand and HughesNet are two such satellite access providers.

▪ Dial-up access over traditional phone lines is based on the same model as DSL—a home
modem connects over a phone line to a modem in the ISP.
▪ Compared to other broadband access networks, dial-up access is extremely slow at 56
kbps.
Access in the Enterprise (and the Home): Ethernet and
WiFi
▪ On corporate and university campuses, a LAN is used to connect an end system to the
edge router
▪ Ethernet is by far the most prevalent access technology in corporate, university, and
home networks
▪ Ethernet users use twisted-pair copper wire to connect to an Ethernet switch
▪ With Ethernet access,
▪ users have 100 Mbps access to the Ethernet switch, whereas
▪ servers may have 1 Gbps or even 10 Gbps access.
Access in the Enterprise (and the Home): Ethernet and
WiFi

Ethernet Internet access

Access in the Enterprise (and the Home): Ethernet and
WiFi
▪ In a wireless LAN setting:
▪ wireless users transmit/receive packets to/from an access point that is connected into the
enterprise’s network which in turn is connected to the wired Internet

A typical home network

Wide-Area Wireless Access: 3G and LTE
▪ Telecommunications companies have made enormous investments in third-generation
(3G) wireless, which provides wide-area wireless Internet access at speeds in excess of 1
Mbps.
▪ Even higher-speed wide-area access technologies—a fourth-generation (4G) of wide-
area wireless networks—are already being deployed.
▪ LTE (Long-Term Evolution) has its roots in 3G technology and can potentially achieve
rates in excess of 10 Mbps.
Physical Media
Physical Media
▪ Physical medium can take many shapes and forms and does not have to be of the same type for each
transmitter-receiver pair along the path.
▪ Physical media fall into two categories:
▪ Guided media : the waves are guided along a solid medium
▪ Unguided media : the waves propagate in the atmosphere and in outer space

▪ Examples of physical media include:

▪ twisted-pair copper wire,
▪ coaxial cable,
▪ multimode fiber-optic cable,
▪ terrestrial radio spectrum, and
▪ satellite radio spectrum.
Twisted-Pair Copper Wire
▪ Least expensive
▪ Most commonly used
▪ Used by telephone networks
▪ Twisted pair consists of :
▪ two insulated copper wires,
▪ each about 1 mm thick,
▪ arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
▪ The wires are twisted together to reduce the electrical interference from similar pairs close by
Twisted-Pair Copper Wire
▪ Two Types :
▪ UTP
▪ Commonly used for computer networks within a building, for LANs.
▪ Data rates for LANs using twisted pair today range from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps.

▪ STP
▪ Twisted pair cables incorporate shielding to prevent electromagnetic interference.
Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR UTP STP
COMPARISON

Basic UTP (Unshielded STP (Shielded twisted

twisted pair) is a cable pair) is a twisted pair
with wires that are cable enclosed in foil or
twisted together. mesh shield.

Noise and crosstalk High comparatively. Less susceptible to noise

generation and crosstalk.

Grounding cable Not required Necessarily required

Ease of handling Easily installed as cables Installation of cables is

are smaller, lighter, and difficult comparatively.
flexible.

Cost Cheaper and does not Moderately expensive.

require much
maintenance.

Data Rates Slow comparatively. Provides high data rates

Coaxial Cable
▪ Coaxial cable consists of two copper conductors, but the two conductors are concentric
rather than parallel
▪ High data transmission rates
▪ Common in cable television systems
▪ Coaxial cable can be used as a guided shared medium.
Fiber Optics
▪ An optical fiber is a thin, flexible medium
▪ Conducts pulses of light, with each pulse representing a bit.
▪ A single optical fiber can support tremendous bit rates, up to tens or even hundreds of
gigabits per second
▪ They are immune to electromagnetic interference
▪ Have very low signal attenuation up to 100 kilometers
▪ The Optical Carrier (OC) standard link speeds range from 51.8 Mbps to 39.8 Gbps
▪ Standards in use today include OC-1, OC-3, OC-12, OC-24, OC-48, OC-96, OC-192, OC-768.
Comparision
▪ In transmitting electronic signals, attenuation is the loss of signal strength as measured
in decibels (dB).
Terrestrial Radio Channels
▪ Radio channels carry signals in the electromagnetic spectrum
▪ They require no physical wire to be installed
▪ Provide connectivity to a mobile user
▪ Characteristics of a radio channel depend significantly on the propagation environment
and the distance
Terrestrial Radio Channels
▪ Terrestrial radio channels can be broadly classified into three groups :
▪ those that operate over very short distance (e.g., with one or two meters)
▪ wireless headsets, keyboards,

▪ those that operate in local areas, typically spanning from ten to a few hundred meters
▪ wireless LAN technologies

▪ those that operate in the wide area, spanning tens of kilometers

▪ cellular access technologies use wide-area radio channels
Satellite Radio Channels
▪ A communication satellite links two or more Earth-based microwave transmitter/
receivers, known as ground stations.
▪ The satellite receives transmissions on one frequency band
▪ Regenerates the signal using a repeater and
▪ Transmits the signal on another frequency.
▪ Two types of satellites are used in communications:
▪ Geostationary satellites and
▪ Low-earth orbiting (LEO) satellites.
Satellite Radio Channels
▪ Geostationary satellites permanently remain above the
same spot on Earth

▪ LEO satellites are placed much closer to Earth and do not

remain permanently above one spot on Earth
▪ They rotate around Earth
The Network Core
PACKET SWITCHING
▪ In a network application, end systems exchange messages with each other
▪ Messages may perform a control function or can contain data, such as an email message,
a JPEG image, or an MP3 audio file
▪ The source breaks long messages into smaller chunks of data known as packets
▪ Each packet travels through communication links and packet switches
▪ Packets are transmitted at a rate equal to the full transmission rate of the link
▪ The time to transmit the packet is L/R seconds
Packet-Switching: Store-and-Forward
▪ Packet switches use store-and-forward transmission at the inputs to the links
▪ Packet switch must receive the entire packet before it can transmit
Packet-Switching: Store-and-Forward
▪ takes L/R seconds to transmit (push out) L-bit packet into link at R bps
▪ store and forward: entire packet must arrive at router before it can be transmitted on next link
▪ end-end delay = N*L/R (assuming zero propagation delay)
▪ routers need to receive, store, and process the entire packet before forwarding.
one-hop numerical example:
▪ L = 7.5 Mbits
▪ R = 1.5 Mbps
▪ one-hop transmission delay = 5 sec
Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss
▪ Each packet switch has multiple links attached to it
▪ For each attached link, the packet switch has an output buffer/output queue
▪ Output buffer : stores packets that the router is about to send into that link
▪ Output buffer queuing delays : an arriving packet needs to be transmitted onto
a link but finds the link busy, the arriving packet must wait in the output buffer
▪ Delays are variable and depend on the level of congestion in the network
▪ Packet loss — either the arriving packet or one of the already-queued packets
will be dropped
Packet switching
Forwarding Tables and Routing Protocols
▪ In the Internet, every end system has an address called an IP address
▪ Each router has a forwarding table
▪ Forwarding table : maps destination addresses to that router’s outbound links
▪ Internet has a few special routing protocols that are used to automatically set the
forwarding tables
Forwarding Tables and Routing Protocols
Routing: determines source-
destination route taken by Forwarding: move packets from
packets router’s input to appropriate
router output
routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1 1
011

dest address in arriving

packet’s header
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
▪ Two fundamental approaches to moving data through a network of links and switches:
▪ Packet switching and
▪ Circuit switching

▪ Circuit Switching : Resources needed for communication are reserved for the duration of
the communication session
▪ Traditional telephone networks are examples of circuit-switched networks
A simple circuit-switched network consisting of four
switches and four links

• If each link between adjacent switches has a transmission rate of 1 Mbps

• then each end-to-end circuit-switch connection gets 250 kbps of dedicated transmission rate.
Multiplexing in Circuit-Switched Networks
▪ A circuit in a link is implemented with either
▪ Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) or
▪ Time-division multiplexing (TDM)

▪ FDM
▪ The frequency spectrum of a link is divided up among the connections established across the link
▪ In telephone networks, this frequency band typically has a width of 4 kHz
▪ The width of the band is called the bandwidth
▪ FM radio stations also use FDM to share the frequency spectrum between 88 MHz and 108 MHz
Multiplexing in Circuit-Switched Networks
▪ TDM
▪ Time is divided into frames of fixed duration
▪ Each frame is divided into a fixed number of time slots
▪ When the network establishes a connection across a link, the network dedicates one time slot in
every frame to this connection
Multiplexing in Circuit-Switched Networks
▪ The transmission rate of a circuit is equal to the frame rate multiplied by the number of
bits in a slot
▪ Example : if the link transmits 8,000 frames per second and each slot consists of 8 bits, then the
transmission rate of a circuit is 64 kbps.
Circuit Switching Vs
Packet Switching
For Data transmission, Packet
Switching is the more efficient than
Circuit Switching whereas,
When it comes to voice transmission
Circuit switching is more efficient than
packet switching.
A NETWORK OF NETWORKS
▪ End systems connect into the Internet via an access ISP
▪ The access ISP can provide either wired or wireless connectivity
▪ Using technologies including DSL, cable, FTTH, Wi-Fi, and cellular
▪ The access ISPs themselves must be interconnected; this is done by creating a network
of networks
Network Structure 1
▪ Interconnects all the access ISPs with a single global transit ISP
▪ Global transit ISP is a network of routers and communication links that spans the globe
▪ Global transit ISP also has at least one router near each of the hundreds of thousands of
access ISPs
▪ Since the access ISP pays the global transit ISP
▪ the access ISP is said to be a customer and
▪ the global transit ISP is said to be a provider
▪ If a company builds a global transit ISP and is profitable then it’s natural for other
companies to build their own global ISPs and compete with the original
Network Structure 2
▪ Consists of the hundreds of thousands of access ISPs and multiple global transit ISPs
▪ The access ISPs certainly prefer Network Structure 2 over Network Structure 1
▪ Based on pricing and service, ISPs can choose among competing Global transit ISPs
▪ Global transit ISPs themselves must be interconnected :
▪ Otherwise access ISPs connected to one of the global transit providers would not be able to
communicate with access ISPs connected to the other global transit provider
A Network Of Networks
▪ In any given region,
▪ There may be a regional ISP to which the access ISPs in the region connect
▪ Each regional ISP then connects to tier-1 ISPs
▪ Tier-1 ISPs are like global transit ISP
▪ Each access ISP pays the regional ISP, and regional ISP pays Tier-1 ISPs
▪ There is customer-provider relationship at each level of the hierarchy
A Network Of Networks
▪ PoP : a group of one or more routers (at the same location) in the provider’s
network
▪ Internet Exchange Point (IXP) - typically in a stand-alone building with its own
switches
▪ There are roughly 300 IXPs in the Internet today
Network Structure 5
▪ The Internet of 2012
▪ Network structure 5 builds on top of Network Structure 4 by adding content provider
networks (Google)
▪ Today’s Internet—a network of networks—is complex, consisting of a dozen or so tier-1
ISPs and hundreds of thousands of lower-tier ISPs
Interconnection of ISPs
 Delay, Loss
&
Throughput
in
Packet-Switched Networks
Overview of Delay in Packet-Switched Networks
▪ A packet suffers several types of delays at each node along the path
▪ Types of delays :
▪ Nodal processing delay,
▪ Queuing delay,
▪ Transmission delay, and
▪ Propagation delay

▪ Together, these delays accumulate to give a total nodal delay

Types of Delay
▪ Processing Delay :
▪ time required to examine the packet’s header and determine where to direct the packet

▪ Queuing Delay :
▪ at the queue/buffer, packet waits to be transmitted onto the link

▪ Transmission Delay :
▪ amount of time required to push or transmit all of the packet’s bits into the link

▪ Propagation Delay :
▪ time required to propagate from the beginning of the link to router B
Comparing Transmission and Propagation Delay
▪ Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km
▪ cars “propagate” at
100 km/hr ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
▪ toll booth takes 12 sec to
service car (bit transmission
time)
time to “push” entire caravan through toll booth onto highway =
▪ Car ~ bit 12*10 = 120 sec = 2 min
▪ Caravan ~ packet
time for last car to propagate from 1st to 2nd toll both:
▪ Q: How long until caravan is 100km/(100km/hr)= 1 hr
lined up before 2nd toll booth?
A: 62 minutes
Four Sources of a Packet Delay

dproc: nodal processing

check bit errors
determine output link
typically < msec

dqueue: queueing delay

time waiting at output link for
transmission
depends on congestion level of
router
Four Sources of a Packet Delay

dtrans: transmission delay:

L: packet length (bits)
R: link bandwidth (bps)
dtrans = L/R

dprop: propagation delay:

d: length of physical link
s: propagation speed in
medium (~2x108 m/sec)
dprop = d/s
Queueing delay (again)
▪ R: link bandwidth (bps)
▪ L: packet length (bits)
▪ a: average packet arrival rate
▪ The ratio La/R, called the traffic intensity

• La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R ~ 0

• La/R > 1: avg. queueing delay large

• La/R > 1: more“work”arriving

than can be serviced, average delay infinite! La/R -> 1
Packet loss
▪ Queue (or buffer) preceding a link has finite capacity
▪ Packet arriving to full queue will be dropped (or lost)
▪ Lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by source end system, or not at all
End-to-End Delay
▪ Suppose that the network is uncongested
▪ queuing delays are negligible

▪ dtrans = L/R, where L is the packet size

Traceroute
▪ To get a hands-on feel for end-to-end delay, we can use the Traceroute program
▪ Traceroute
▪ a simple program that can run in any Internet host
Example
▪ Output of a traceroute program :
Throughput in Computer Networks
▪ Instantaneous throughput at any instant of time is the rate (in bits/sec) at which Host B
is receiving the file.
▪ If the file consists of F bits and the transfer takes T seconds for Host B to receive all F bits
▪ then the average throughput of the file transfer is F/T bits/sec
Throughput
▪ the server cannot pump bits through its link at a rate faster than Rs bps

▪ the router cannot forward bits at a rate faster than Rc bps

▪ If Rs < Rc , throughput is Rs bps

▪ If Rc < Rs , end-to-end throughput is Rc

▪ Here, the throughput is min{Rc , Rs}, it is the transmission rate of the bottleneck link
Throughput
▪ A network with N links between the server and the client

▪ Transmission rates of the N links being R1, R2,..., RN

▪ Throughput for a file transfer from server to client is min{R1, R2,..., RN}
Example motivated by today’s Internet
▪ R is the transmission rate of the core
link
▪ All server access links have the same
rate Rs
▪ All client access links have the same rate
Rc
▪ If the rate of the common link, R, is
large than both Rs and Rc
▪ the throughput for each download will be
min{Rs , Rc }
 Protocol Layers
And
Their Service Models
Introduction
▪ There are many pieces to the Internet :
▪ numerous applications and protocols,
▪ various types of end systems,
▪ packet switches, and
▪ various types of link-level media

▪ Question:
▪ is there any hope of organizing a network architecture?
Layered Architecture
▪ Human Analogy : Airline System

Taking an airplane trip: actions

Layered Architecture
▪ Each layer provides its service by :
▪ performing certain actions within that
layer
▪ using the services of the layer directly
below it

Horizontal layering of airline functionality

Layered Architecture
▪ A Layered Architecture
▪ a structured way to discuss system components

▪ The system remains unchanged when a layer’s implementation is changed.

▪ Note : changing the implementation of a service is very different from changing the service itself
▪ The Internet protocol stack consists of five layers:
▪ the physical,
▪ link,
▪ network,
▪ transport, and
▪ application layers
Protocol Layering
▪ Network designers organize
▪ Protocols and
▪ The network hardware and software that
implement the protocols — in layers
▪ Taken together, the protocols of the various
layers are called the protocol stack.
Layers of the Internet Protocol Stack
▪ Application Layer
▪ Network applications and their application-layer protocols reside
▪ Application Layer Protocols :
▪ HTTP protocol (for Web document request and transfer)
▪ SMTP (for the transfer of e-mail messages)
▪ FTP (for the transfer of files between two end systems)

▪ An application-layer protocol is distributed over multiple end systems

▪ packet of information at the application layer is a message
Layers of the Internet Protocol Stack
▪ Transport Layer

▪ Transports application-layer messages between application endpoints

▪ This layer provides :

▪ guaranteed delivery of messages to the destination and
▪ flow control

▪ Two transport protocols :

▪ TCP
▪ breaks long messages into shorter segments
▪ provides a congestion-control mechanism
▪ UDP
▪ Provides a connectionless service to its applications

▪ Transport-layer packet is a segment

Layers of the Internet Protocol Stack
▪ Network Layer
▪ Responsible for moving datagrams from one host to another
▪ Network Layer Protocol :
▪ IP Protocol
▪ defines the fields in the datagram as well as how the end systems and routers act on these fields

▪ Network layer contains routing protocols that determine the routes

▪ Network-layer packet is a datagram
Layers of the Internet Protocol Stack
▪ Link Layer
▪ Responsible for moving entire frames from one network element to an adjacent network
element
▪ Services provided by the link layer depend on the specific link-layer protocol
▪ Link Layer Protocols :
▪ Ethernet
▪ WiFi and
▪ the cable access network’s DOCSIS protocol

▪ Link Layer packets are frames

Layers of the Internet Protocol Stack
▪ Physical Layer
▪ Responsible for moving the individual bits within the frame from one node to the next
▪ Protocols here are link dependent
▪ Depends on the actual transmission medium of the link
▪ Example :
▪ twisted-pair copper wire
▪ single-mode fiber optics etc
The OSI Model
▪ Proposed in 1970s
▪ ISO proposed that computer networks be organized around seven
layers called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
▪ The two additional layers present in the OSI reference model:
▪ Presentation layer : allow applications to interpret meaning of data,
e.g., encryption, compression, machine-specific conventions
▪ Session layer : synchronization, checkpointing, recovery of data
exchange
Encapsulation
Encapsulation
▪ Routers and Link-layer switches do not implement all the layers in the protocol
stack
▪ they implement only the bottom layers

▪ Internet routers can implement the IP protocol (a layer 3 protocol), while link-layer
switches can not
▪ Hosts implement all five layers
Concept of Encapsulation
▪ At the sending host, an application-layer message M is passed to the transport layer
▪ The transport layer takes the message and appends additional information (so-called transport-layer
header information, Ht )
▪ The application-layer message and the transport-layer header information together constitute the
transport-layer segment
▪ The transport-layer segment thus encapsulates the application-layer message
▪ At each layer
▪ a packet has two types of fields:
▪ header fields and
▪ a payload field

▪ The payload is typically a packet from the layer above

NETWORK SECURITY
▪ field of network security:
▪ how bad guys can attack computer networks
▪ how we can defend networks against attacks
▪ how to design architectures that are immune to attacks

▪ Internet not originally designed with (much) security in mind

▪ original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users attached to a transparent network” 
▪ Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
▪ security considerations in all layers!
Bad guys: put malware into hosts via Internet
▪ malware can get in host from:
▪ virus: self-replicating infection by receiving/executing object (e.g., e-mail attachment)
▪ worm: self-replicating infection by passively receiving object that gets itself executed
▪ spyware malware can record keystrokes, web sites visited, upload info to collection site
▪ infected host can be enrolled in botnet, used for spam. DDoS attacks
Bad guys: attack server, network infrastructure
▪ Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources (server, bandwidth) unavailable to
legitimate traffic by overwhelming resource with bogus traffic
1. select target
2. break into hosts around the network (see botnet)
3. send packets to target from compromised hosts
Bad guys can sniff packets
▪ packet “sniffing”:
▪ broadcast media (shared ethernet, wireless)
▪ promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets (e.g., including passwords!) passing by

▪ wireshark software used for end-of-chapter labs is a (free) packet-sniffer

Bad guys can use fake addresses
▪ IP spoofing: send packet with false source address
INTERNET HISTORY

▪ 1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles

1961: Kleinrock - queueing theory shows effectiveness of packet-switching

1964: Baran - packet-switching in military nets
1967: ARPAnet conceived by Advanced Research Projects Agency
1969: first ARPAnet node operational
1972: ARPAnet public demo
NCP (Network Control Protocol) first host-host protocol
first e-mail program
ARPAnet has 15 nodes
INTERNET HISTORY

1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets

1970: ALOHAnet satellite network in Hawaii Cerf and Kahn’s internetworking
1974: Cerf and Kahn - architecture for principles:
interconnecting networks minimalism, autonomy - no internal
1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC changes required to interconnect
networks
late70s: proprietary architectures: DECnet, SNA,
best effort service model
XNA stateless routers
late 70s: switching fixed length packets (ATM decentralized control
precursor) define today’s Internet architecture
1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes
INTERNET HISTORY

1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

▪ 1983: deployment of TCP/IP •new national networks:

Csnet, BITnet, NSFnet,
▪ 1982: smtp e-mail protocol defined Minitel
• 100,000 hosts connected
▪ 1983: DNS defined for name-to-IP-address to confederation of
translation networks

▪ 1985: ftp protocol defined

▪ 1988: TCP congestion control
INTERNET HISTORY
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
▪ early 1990s: ARPAnet decommissioned late 1990s – 2000s:
more killer apps: instant messaging, P2P
▪ 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on commercial
file sharing
use of NSFnet (decommissioned, 1995)
network security to forefront
▪ early 1990s: Web est. 50 million host, 100 million+ users
backbone links running at Gbps
▪ hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson 1960’s]
▪ HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
▪ 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
▪ late 1990’s: commercialization of the
Web
INTERNET HISTORY
2005-present
▪ ~750 million hosts
▪ Smartphones and tablets
▪ Aggressive deployment of broadband access
▪ Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access
▪ Emergence of online social networks:
▪ Facebook: soon one billion users
▪ Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their own networks
▪ Bypass Internet, providing “instantaneous” access to search, emai, etc.
▪ E-commerce, universities, enterprises running their services in “cloud” (eg, Amazon EC2)