Module I

Water and Steam

Requisites of Industrial Water and its uses; Water treatment
methods – ion exchange, demineralization, membranes
technology, reverse osmosis. Water resources management.
Properties of steam, Boiler types and mountings, boiler
accessories, Indian Boiler Act, 1923. Steam distribution and
utilization, steam economy, waste heat utilization.
Importance of Utilities in Process plants
In addition to raw materials, any chemical plant requires
various other services (Utilities) to smoothly carry out the
processes.
Common utilities used in chemical plants:
Steam,
Electricity,
Refrigerants,
Water sources,
Compressed air,
Heat transfer fluids,
Fuels,
Insulation etc.
 Importance of Utilities in Process plants

Utility area is an important area of a Chemical Plant. This

may house various Boilers, Large Compressors,
Refrigeration systems, Air Conditioning systems, Water
Treatment Plants, Cooling Towers, Power plants etc.

•Utilities situated outside plant limits does not mean that

utilities are less important than the main processes.
Efficient Management of Utilities: Poor management of
utilities make the most profitable processes unprofitable.
The utilities help to maintain proper process conditions like
pressure, temperature etc., without which it will be impossible
to carry out the process, e.g. If steam at higher temperature
enters the Heat Exchangers than the desired temperature, the
Exchangers may get damaged.
Now a days most of the Engineering practices are aimed at
reducing the consumption of utilities, because production of
utilities whether it is compressed air, steam etc., requires
energy and energy is becoming costlier day by day.
Efficient Utility Management doesn't end at cost cutting. If
supply of utilities is not proper, then the equipment may not
last their full life.
The aim of a Process Engineer should be to provide Utilities
& other services in required quantities and of quality as
required by the users.
Properties of Steam
What is Steam?

Why is Steam Used?

How do we create Steam?

How do we identify Steam properties?

 What is Steam?
Steam is a vapor form of water in a gaseous state, and is
colorless, tasteless, and odorless.

It utilizes heat during the process and carries large quantities of
heat later. Hence, it could be used as a working substance for
heat engines.
 How we create steam?

Steam is created by adding Heat Energy to water.

Steam is generated in boilers at constant pressure.

Generally, steam may be obtained starting from ice or water by

adding heat to it.
Steam exists in following states or types or conditions:

(i) Wet steam (saturated steam)

(ii) Dry steam (dry saturated steam)

(iii) Superheated steam

How we create steam?

The Heat Energy required to create steam has two forms:

Sensible Heat
Latent Heat
Sensible Heat
Sensible Heat is the amount of Heat Energy required to raise the
temperature of water from 0°C (32°F) to the boiling point
(saturated liquid) at a given pressure (No phase change).
Sensible Heat raises the temperature of the water and can be
sensed with a thermometer.
Latent Heat

Latent Heat is the amount of Heat Energy required to

transform water at the boiling point (saturated liquid) to steam
(phase change).
Adding Latent Heat does not raise the temperature –
saturated liquid and steam have the same temperature for a
given pressure.

Enthalpy:
Enthalpy is the measure of total heat present in the system
where the pressure is constant
Pressure Units

1 bar = 105 Pa
1 atm = 101325 Pa = 1.01325 bars
1 kgf/cm2 = 9.81 x 104 N/m2

1 atm = 14.696 psi

Formation of Steam at Constant Pressure
Formation of Steam at Constant Pressure
The graphical representation of transformation of 1 kg of ice into 1 kg
of superheated steam at constant pressure (temp. vs. enthalpy) is known
as t-h diagram.
(a) Consider 1 kg of ice in a piston-cylinder arrangement as shown. It is
under an absolute Pressure ‘P’ bar and at temperature –t oC (below
the freezing point). Keeping the pressure constant, the gradual
heating of the ice leads increase in temperature from P to Q i.e. from
– t oC till it reaches the temperature 0oC.
(b) Adding more heat, the ice starts melting without change in
temperature till the entire ice is converted into water from Q to R.
The amount of heat during this period from Q to R is called Latent
heat of fusion of ice.
(c) Continuous heating raises the temperature to its boiling point t oC
known as Saturation Temperature and the corresponding pressure is
called saturation pressure. It is the stage of vaporization at 1.013 bar
atmospheric pressure (760mm of Hg at 100oC). The amount of heat
added during R to S is called Sensible Heat. During the process, a slight
increase in volume of water (saturated water) may be noted. The
resulting volume is known as Specific volume of Saturated Water (vW).
(d) On further heating beyond S, the water will gradually start to
evaporate and starts converting to steam, but the temperature remains
constant. As long as the steam is in contact with water, it is called Wet
Steam or Saturated Steam.
(e) On further heating the temperature remains constant, but the entire
water converts to steam. But still it will be wet steam. The total heat
supplied from 0oC is called Enthalpy of Wet Steam (hwet). The resulting
volume is known as Specific Volume of Wet Steam (vwet).
(f) On further heating the wet steam, the water particles, which are in
suspension, will start evaporating gradually and at a particular moment
the final particles just evaporate. The steam at that moment
corresponding to point T is called Dry Steam or Dry Saturated Steam.
The resulting volume is known as Specific Volume of Dry Steam (vg).
The amount of heat added during S to T is called Latent Heat of
Vaporization of Steam (hfg). During the process, the saturation
temperature remains constant. The total heat supplied from 0oC is called
Enthalpy of Dry Steam (hg).
(g) On further heating beyond point T to U the temperature starts
increasing from ts to tu. This process is called Super heating. The
steam so obtained is called Super Heated Steam. It obeys gas
laws (Boyle's Law and Charle's Law) to some extent by behaving
like a perfect gas.
Important Terminologies
Enthalpy of saturated water (h):
Amount of heat absorbed by given mass of water from freezing
point (0o C at 1 atm) to boiling point (100o C at 1 atm) is known
as enthalpy of saturated water. It is denoted by the symbol ‘h’.
At 1 atm, its value is 417.7 kJ/kg of water.
Enthalpy of evaporation (L):
Enthalpy of evaporation or latent heat, is defined as the
amount of heat required to convert a given mass of water at its
saturation temperature Ts at a given pressure P into steam at the
same temperature and pressure. It is denoted by the symbol ‘L’.
Value of enthalpy of evaporation varies with pressure. Its value
is 2258 kJ per unit mass of water at 1 bar.
Saturated (dry) steam results when water is heated to the
boiling point (sensible heating) and then vaporized with
additional heat (latent heating).

If this steam is then further heated above the saturation point,
it becomes superheated steam (sensible heating).
Enthalpy of dry saturated steam (Hs):
It is the sum of enthalpy of saturated water and enthalpy of
evaporation and is defined as the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of given mass of water from freezing point
to the temperature of evaporation Ts and then convert it into dry
saturated steam at that temperature and pressure.
It is denoted by the symbol Hs.
HS = h + L, kJ
Value of enthalpy of 1 kg of dry saturated steam can be directly
obtained from steam tables for various pressure and
temperatures.
Enthalpy of evaporation is the enthalpy difference between the
dry saturated steam and saturated water.
Wet steam & Dryness fraction:
Steam containing water in it in the form of fine particles is
called wet steam.
Dryness fraction of steam (usually wet steam) is the ratio of
mass of actual dry steam to the wet steam containing it. Dryness
fraction is often indicated as the quality of wet steam.
ms
Dryness fraction, x = ------------
ms + m
ms = mass of dry steam in the sample,
m = mass of water in the steam sample
Enthalpy of wet steam, Hwet = h + (1-x)L, kJ/kg
Enthalpy of evaporation of 1 kg of wet steam = xL, kJ/kg
Superheated steam:
Steam, heated out of contact with water, is said to be superheated.
Amount of superheating is measured by the rise in temperature of
the steam above its saturation temperature, Ts. Greater the
superheating, the more the steam acquire the properties of perfect
gas.
Heat absorbed per kg of dry steam during superheating
= Cp (Tsup – Ts) kJ/kg
where Cp is the mean specific heat of superheated steam, at
constant pressure.
Enthalpy of one kg of superheated steam,
Hsup = Hs + Cp (Tsup – Ts), kJ/kg
Specific Volume of steam (Vs):
Volume occupied by one kg of dry saturated steam is called specific
volume of the steam.

Specific volume of wet steam having a dryness fraction of x

= volume of dry steam + volume of water particles
= xVs + (1 – x) Vw m3/kg
where Vs and Vw denote the specific volume of steam and water,
respectively.

Approximate specific volume of superheated steam can be calculated as,

Tsup
Vsup = Vs * ---------
Ts
In process industries, saturated steam is generally preferable
to superheated steam?
Industries normally use saturated steam for heating, drying or
cooking.

Heat transfer is far superior when steam is saturated. Since the

temperature of saturated steam is uniform, no temperature
profile appear between steam and heating surface.

In a heat exchanger, saturated steam is not in direct contact

with the heating surface since the condensation of steam
induces a thin layer of condensate on the heating surface.
The condensate film formed on the heating surface is attracted
by gravity and flows toward the bottom of the exchanger.

This film thickness is relatively even over the entire

heating surface, and it prevents the formation of a temperature
profile.
Superheated steam is used exclusively for turbines
Superheated steam is used exclusively for turbines
1st reason
In a turbine, steam must be dry and water droplets are not
allowed, as they could break the vanes.
At the high rotation speed of the vanes, the centrifugal force
applied on small drops of water can unbalance the vanes and
cause them to break.

2nd reason
In a turbine, the amount of work supplied by steam depends on
its energy and superheated steam contains
more energy than saturated steam.
Effect of Pressure
Increased Pressure: (i) Decreases the amount of Latent Heat, (ii)
Increases the amount of Sensible Heat

1000
900
800
700
600
500 0 psig
400 15 psig
300 50 psig
200
100
0
Latent Sensible
Heat Heat
BTU/lb BTU/lb
Increased Pressure:
Decreases the Specific Volume

Specific Volume vs. Pressure

(cu. ft / lb) (psig)

30 26.8
0 PSIG
25
15 PSIG
20
13.8 60PSIG
15
10 5.8
5
0
1
Increased Pressure:
Increases the Steam Temperature

Steam Temperature vs. Pressure

(Deg. F) (psig)

400 308 0 PSIG

250 15 PSIG
300 212
60PSIG
200
100
0
1
 Steam Pressure

Steam Temperature

Sensible Heat

Latent Heat

Specific Volume
Pressure / Temperature / Volume Relationship
Boiler types, mountings, accessories, Acts
 Boilers
Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released
by combustion of fuel is used to make steam at the desired
temperature and pressure.

The steam produced is used for:

(i) Producing mechanical work by expanding it in steam engine or
steam turbine.
(ii) Heating the residential and industrial buildings
(iii) Performing certain processes in industries.
 Steam Theory

A boiler is a device used to

create steam by applying heat
energy to water.
Within the boiler, fuel and air are

forced into the furnace by the

burner.
There, it burns to produce heat.

From there, the heat (flue gases)

travel throughout the boiler.

37
The water absorbs the heat, and eventually absorb enough to

change into a gaseous state - steam.

Water enters the boiler, preheated at the top.

The water heats up and flows back to the steam drum where the

steam collects.
Not all the water gets turned to steam, so the process starts again.

Water keeps on circulating until it becomes steam.

38
Meanwhile, the control system takes care of the temperature of

the steam drum to determine if it should keep the burner

burning, or shut it down.
Similarly the sensors control the amount of water entering the

boiler, known as feed water, which is treated with chemicals to

neutralize various minerals in the water.
Otherwise, it would make the boiler expensive to operate

because it would NOT be very efficient.

39
On the fire side of the boiler, carbon deposit resulting from

improper combustion or impurities in the fuel can accumulate

on the outer surface of the water tube.
This creates an insulation which quickly decrease the energy

transfer from the heat to the water.

To solve this problem soot blowing is carried out. This blowing

action of the steam "scrubs" the outside of the water tubes,

cleaning the carbon build up.

40
Water tube boilers can have pressures from 7 bar to as high as

250 bar.
The steam temperature can vary between saturated steam, 100

◦C steam with particle of water, or be as high as 600 - 650 ◦C,

known as superheated steam or dry steam.
The performance of boiler is generally referred to as tons of

steam produced in one hour.

In water tube boilers that could be as low as 1.5 t/hr to as high

as 2500 t/hr.

41
 Boiler properties

(i) Safety. The boiler should be safe under operating conditions.

(ii) Accessibility. The various parts of the boiler should be

accessible for repair and maintenance.

(iii) Capacity. Should be capable of supplying steam according to

the requirements.
(iv) Efficiency. Should be able to absorb a maximum amount of heat
produced due to burning of fuel in the furnace.

(v) It should be simple in construction.

(vi) Its initial cost and maintenance cost should be low.

(vii) Should be capable of quick starting and loading.

 CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS

According to what flows in the TUBE

1. Water tube Boiler.

2. Fire tube Boiler.

Boilers can be classified according to the relative position of the
water and the hot furnace gases under two main classes:

Fire tube boilers: In these boilers, furnace gases pass through the
tubes which are surrounded by water. The water accepts the heat
from the heated tubes and gets evaporated.

Cochran boilers, Locomotive boilers, Simple vertical tube

boiler, Scotch marine boilers fall in this category.

Water tube boilers: The boilers in which the furnace gases pass
over the external surface of the tubes through which the water is
circulated are called water tube boilers.

Babcock and Wilcox boilers; Stirling boilers, Yarrow boilers fall

in this category. 45
Water tube boilers
 The water tube boiler
Structurally the Water Tube Boiler
looks very complicated.
Thousands of tubes are placed in
strategic location to optimize the
exchange of energy from the heat
to the water in the tubes.
These types of boilers are most
common because of their ability to
deliver large quantities of steam.
The large tube like structure at the
top of the boiler is called the steam
drum.
The hundreds of tube start and
eventually end up at the steam
drum.
47
BABCOCK WILCOX BOILER
The water tube boilers are exclusively used when pressure
above 10 bar and capacity in excess of 7000 kg of steam/hr is
required.
Babcock and Wilcox water-tube boiler is an example of
horizontal straight tube boiler.
Details of boiler are as below:

49
Babcock and Wilcox boiler consists of a longitudinal drum
connected to a series of front end and rear end header by short
riser tubes. To these headers are connected a series of inclined
water tubes of solid drawn mild steel.
The angle of inclination of the water tubes to the horizontal is
about 15o or more. A hand hole is provided in the header in front
of each tube for cleaning and inspection of tubes.
A feed valve is provided to fill the drum and inclined tubes with
water the level of which is indicated by the water level indicator.
Through the fire door the fuel is supplied to grate where it is
burnt. The hot gases are forced to move upwards between the
tubes by baffle plates provided.
The water from the drum flows through the inclined tubes via
downtake header and goes back into the shell in the form of water
and steam via uptake header.
The steam gets collected in the steam space of the drum. The steam
then enters through the anti-priming pipe and flows in the
superheater tubes where it is further heated and is finally taken out
through the main stop valve and supplied to the engine when needed.

At the lowest point of the boiler a mud collector is provided to

remove the mud particles through a blow down cock.

The entire boiler except the furnace are hung by means of metallic
slings or straps or wrought iron girders supported on pillars. This
arrangement enables the drum and the tubes to expand or contract
freely.

The brickwork around the boiler encloses the furnace and the hot
gases.
A Babcock Wilcox water tube boiler with cross draw differs from
longitudinal drum boiler in a way that how drum is placed with
reference to the axis of the water tubes of the boiler.

The longitudinal drum restricts the number of tubes that can be

connected to one drum circumferentially and limits the capacity
of the boiler. In the cross drum there is no limitation of the
number of connecting tubes.

The pressure of steam in case of cross drum boiler may be as

high as 100 bar and steaming capacity up to 27000 kg/h.
Fire – tube Boilers
Cochran Boiler
Cochran Boiler
One of the best types of multi tubular boiler and has a number of
horizontal fire tubes.

56
Cochran boiler consists of a cylindrical shell with a dome shaped
top where the space is provided for steam. The furnace is one
piece construction and is seamless.
The crown has a hemi spherical shape and thus provides
maximum volume of space.
The fuel is burnt on the grate and ash is collected and disposed
off from ash pit.
Gases of combustion produced by burning of fuel enter the
combustion chamber through the flue tube and strike against fire
brick lining which directs them to pass through number of
horizontal tubes, being surrounded by water.
The gases then escape to the atmosphere through smoke box and
chimney.
A number of hand holes are provided around the outer shell for
cleaning purposes.
57
The important features of this boiler are :
It is very compact and requires minimum floor area

Any type of fuel can be used with this boiler

Well suited for small capacity requirements

It gives about 70% thermal efficiency with coal firing and

about 75% with oil firing

Merits of water tube boilers over fire tube boilers
1. Generation of steam is much quicker due to small ratio of
water content to steam content. This also helps in reaching the
steaming temperature in short time.

2. Its evaporative capacity is considerably larger and the steam

pressure range is also high-200 bar.

3. Heating surfaces are more effective as the hot gases travel at

right angles to the direction of water flow.

4. The combustion efficiency is higher because complete

combustion of fuel is possible as the combustion space is much
larger.
5. The thermal stresses in the boiler parts are less as different parts
of the boiler remain at uniform temperature due to quick
circulation of water.

6. The boiler can be easily transported and erected as its different

parts can be separated.

7. Damage due to the bursting of water tube is less serious.

Therefore, water tube boilers are sometimes called safety boilers.

8. All parts of the water tube boilers are easily accessible for
cleaning, inspecting and repairing.

9. The water tube boiler's furnace area can be easily altered to meet
the fuel requirements.
 Demerits:
1. It is less suitable for impure and sedimentary water, as a small
deposit of scale may cause the overheating and bursting of
tube. Therefore, use of pure feed water is essential.

2. They require careful attention. The maintenance costs are

higher.

3. Failure in feed water supply even for short period is liable to

make the boiler over-heated.
Factors for boiler selection:
Pressure at which boiler is to operate and the quality of steam
required
Rate of steam generation.
Availability of floor area.
Efficiency of boiler in the same range i.e. amount of steam
extracted per unit weight of fuel burnt.
Easy accessibility for cleaning repairs and inspection.
Comparative initial cost.
Erection facility i.e. erection of boiler is easy or complex.
Adherence to Indian Boiler Act.

62
Advantages of fire tube boilers

(i) Low cost

(ii) Fluctuations of steam demand can be met easily

(iii) It is compact in size.

Boiler Mountings:
Boiler mountings are primarily intended for the safety of the
boiler and for complete control of steam generation process.

Boiler Accessories:
Boiler accessories are installed to increase the efficiency of the
boiler plants to help in proper working of boiler unit.

64
Differences Between Boiler Mountings And Accessories
Boiler Mountings:

Dead weight safety valve

Spring loaded safety valve

Fusible plug

Pressure gauge

66
Dead Weight Safety Valve


Weights are placed sufficiently in the weight carrier.


The total load on the valve includes the weight of the carrier, the weight of the cover, the weight of
the discs and the weight of the valve itself.


When the steam pressure exceeds the normal limit, the valve along with the weight carrier is lifted
off its seat.


Thus the steam escapes through the discharge pipe. 67
Spring Loaded Safety Valve
•  The steam pressure acts below
the valves.
 
•  When the steam pressure
is normal the valves are
held in their seats tightly by
the spring force.
 
•  When the steam pressure in
the boiler exceeds the working
pressure, both valves are lifted
off their seats.

•  Thus the steam from the boiler escapes the boiler and steam pressure is reduced.
 
•  The blow off pressure is adjusted by loosening or screwing the nut.
68
Fusible Plug
Under normal working conditions,
the fusible plug is completely
covered with water.

Hence the temperature of the plug

is not increased appreciably
during combustion process.

When the water level falls below the

safe limit, the fusible plug is uncovered
from water and exposed to steam.

The furnace heat over heats the plug and it melts the fusible metal and 
copper plug falls down.

Due to this, water steam mixture rushes into the furnace and the fire is extinguished.

69
 Bourden Tube Pressure Gauge

The  steam  pressure  is  applied

to  the elliptical cross section
of the tube to straighten out
slightly.
The closed end of the Bourdon
tube moves.
This movement actuates the
toothed sector and pinion rotates.
The pointer is mounted on the pinion. Hence the pointer moves
on the graduated dial in clockwise, to indicate the steam
pressure.
 Water Level Indicator

To know the water level in

the boiler the handles of the
steam cock and water cock
are kept in vertical positions.

Water rushes through the

bottom casting and steam
rushes through the upper
casting to the gauge glass
tube.

The level of water

corresponds to the water
level in the boiler. 71
Boiler Accessories
Boiler accessories are installed to increase the efficiency of the boiler
plants to help in proper working of boiler unit.   

Economiser
 
•   Air Preheater
 
•   Super Heater
 
•   Steam Separator
 
•   Steam Trap

72
Economiser

Economizers are used to capture the waste heat

from boiler stack gases (flue gas) and transfer it to the boiler
feed water.
This raises the temperature of the boiler feed water, lowering
the needed energy input, in turn reducing the firing rates
needed for the rated boiler output.
 The feed water is pumped to the bottom header and this water is carried to
the top header through number of vertical tubes.
 Hot flue gases are allowed to pass over the external surface of the tubes.
 The feed water which flows upward in the tubes is heated by the flue gases.
 This preheated water is supplied to the water.
 Scrappers are moved slowly moved up and down to clean the surface of the
tubes.
Air Preheater

Hot flue gases pass through the tubes of air preheater after
leaving the boiler or economiser.
Air and flue gases flow in opposite directions.
Baffles are provided in the air preheater and the air passes
number of times over the tubes.

Heat is absorbed by the air from the flue gases.

This preheated is supplied to the furnace to aid combustion.

Super Heater

The steam is allowed into the separator.

The steam strikes the baffle plates and the direction of flow is changed.
As a result, heavier particles in steam falls down to the bottom
of the separator.

The separated steam is free from water particles.

It is passed to the turbine or engine through the outlet pipe.

Steam Separator

Steam stop valve is opened.

The steam from the evaporator drum is passed through the super
heater tubes.
First the steam passed through the radiant super heater and
then to the convective super heater.

The steam is heated when it passes through these super heaters

and converted into the super heated steam.
 
This superheated steam is supplied to the turbine through the
valve.
Steam Trap

The condensed water enters the steam trap by gravity.

When the water level in the trap rises high enough, the ball float
is lifted.
This causes the valve to open and the water is discharged
through the outlet.

After the discharge of water, the float moves down.

This causes the valve to close again.

Indian Boiler Act
 Indian Boiler Act, 1923
Boiler Act insists on registration and regular inspection of all boilers
in the country except those installed in ships or under control of
railway and military.
This act is applicable to all boilers, feed pipes, steam pipes and all
economizers.

Registration of Boilers
Boilers have to registered before they can be used. The owner of the
boiler shall give an application for the same.
The inspector shall examine the boiler and find the maximum
pressure at which the boiler may be operated. He/she will submit the
report to the chief inspector and in turn th employer may be get
authorized for 1 year to use the boiler.
The employees shall not use the boiler for pressure higher than that
permitted by the chief inspector.
Certificate of Renewal:
The certificate useful for the employer for using the boiler shall be
renewed
After generally 12 months
If the boiler is transferred from one state to another
If some boiler accidents occur
If some alterations are done in boiler parts

Duties of Inspectors:
Confirms all boilers are registered and insured.
Make sure that all boilers are working according to the Act.
Check and examine boilers, their parts and mountings
Advise the employer of boilers regarding the matters of boiler
maintenance, cleaning etc…
85
Duties of Inspectors: (Contd…)
The chief inspector shall
Maintain the records of registered boilers
Examine the boiler inspection reports produced by inspectors
Decide whether to issue the certificate for the operation of boiler
or not
Supervise and control the work of inspectors

Transfer of Boilers:
When a boiler is transferred from one state to another,
permission must be taken again from the chief inspector of new
state for its installation and operation
Inspection of Boilers:
Before inspecting the boiler, the following things are ensured:
Boiler is cleaned
All fittings such as burners, stokers etc… are removed
Valves and cocks are opened.
An inspector examines all parts of the boiler, carries the hydraulic
test at places, where water pressure is raised to hydraulic test
pressure + 50 psi. When the hydraulic test pressure is reached, the
boiler is inspected for water leakage of any.

Boiler repairs:
Before carrying out boiler repairs, permission is obtained from
chief inspector. Major boiler repairs and replacement connected
with furnace etc… are undertaken in the presence of the inspector.
87
Boiler accidents:
In case of boiler accidents, the employer shall inform the inspector with
full details of the same.
The inspector shall carry out investigation and decide whether to permit
the use of the boiler in future and if so, the at what operating pressure.
The inspector shall inform the chief inspector about his investigation and
recommendations.

Boiler Mountings:(recommendations as per IBA,1967 amendment)

One blow off cock
One feed pump
One feed check valve
One fusible plug
Adequate number of manholes and sight holes
Two safety valves
Two water level indicator
One safety valve after super heater
Penalties:
A fine up to Rs 5000 and then Rs 1000 per day additional after the
first day of the offence shall be imposed on the occupier of the
boiler, who

 Operates a boiler without getting registered.

 Refuses to surrender the certificate of operating the boiler
 Does not report the transfer of boiler form one state to another
and uses it without inspection
 Does not report the accident of boiler
 Repairs after or replaces boiler parts without prior permission of
the inspector
 Violates any other provisions of the IBA, 1923
Boiler feed water
Since boilers operates at elevated temperature and pressure,
treatment of boiler feed water becomes more demanding than
that of cooling waters.

Iron & Manganese concentrations and hardness level in water

control the scale deposition in boiler.

For runs longer than a year, these limits should be reduced

proportionately.

The reduction methods are discussed as follows:

Water Softening methods – Hardness removal
Most commonly used water softening methods are:

a) Preboiling of water

b) Lime soda process

c) Zeolite or Permutit process

d) Phosphate treatment

e) Ion exchange process

Removal of Silica
Silica removal is carried using Mg(OH) 2. When silica is in very less
quantity, silica removal becomes difficult and MgO is used in such
cases.

Silica removal is a multi step process involving the adsorption of

SiO2 on Mg(OH)2 followed by chemical combination between
them. In case of MgO usage, considerable time is required for silica
removal and this obtained by recirculating the water.

Dolomitic limes, Remosil are certain materials which serves as

good source of Mg(OH)2 and MgO.

CaCO3 saturation index known as Langelier index, helps us to

determine whether a given water has scale forming properties or it
is corrosive. It takes into account total solids, temperature, calcium
Removal of Iron & Manganese
Fund primarily in ground water supplies and in wells.

Present in their bicarbonates form, they causes stains upon

oxidation and precipitation.

These stains are unevenly deposited forming spots and streaks.

Iron containing water can never used for boilers and even for
drinking purposes, as presence of iron gives unpalatable taste.

Presence of Mg causes an excessive increase in pH.

Removal of Iron
Iron is precipitated by oxidizing its reduced form to yield insoluble
hydroxide. The oxidation is carried out with
a) oxygen derived from air
b) Chlorine
c) potassium permanganate

The reaction involved are as follows:

The theoretical amount of iron oxidized by 1 ppm of oxidizing
material is:

 Thus, oxidation using oxygen (aeration) seems to very

effective for ion removal. However, the oxidation reaction is
very slow at low pH because of air’s oxidation potential.

 Data reported shows that a 10 ppm ferrous concentration at pH

5 still shows a residual 7.5 ppm after 1 hr contact with air
followed by filtration. However, when the pH is raised to 7, a
residual of only 0.1 ppm was present on 10 ppm raw water
after 15 min of air content.
 Forced draft and wood slat tray aerators are most common
pieces of equipment used for aeration. In these equipments,
incoming water is broken into small droplets that are exposed
to air for better oxidation.

 These units not only provide air for oxidation but also reduce
the CO2 content of water, simultaneously raising the pH level
of the water.
 Oxidation using chlorine has the disadvantage of higher operating
cost, since 1 ppm of chlorine will oxidize only 1.6 ppm of iron.

 However, chlorine oxidizes iron more rapidly at a lower pH than

air. For a 10 ppm of Iron content raw water, contact with chlorine
for 10 min results in 0.1 ppm of residual iron when the pH of water
is 5.

 In most cases, chlorine is feed into the line carrying the water
upstream of a filter. The 3 – 4 min contact from the entry point
until the reach of filter is sufficient for oxidation and precipitation.

 Precipitated iron particles may be too small to be retained by filter

and can pass through the filter. Hence, a small amount of coagulant
like alum is used to increase the size of the precipitated iron
particles to make them filterable.
 Removal of Iron using KMNO4 is similar to treatment with
chlorine. Same type inline feed and filtration system can be used
with permanganate.

 The disadvantage with KMNO4 is that little excess of it would

result in pink water containing manganese.

 Permanganate is used in conjunction with manganese zeolite for

iron reduction. Permanganate oxidizes iron to insoluble Fe(OH)3
and filters remove it out. Excess permanganate is taken up by
the zeolite which is being regenerated to be used for iron
removal.
Removal of Manganese
 Removal of manganese is similar to iron removal (using O 2, Cl,
KMnO4) but the process is carried out at lower pH.

 Manganese bicarbonates are oxidized to manganese hydroxides

which catalyzes the further oxidation of soluble manganese salts
present in water.

 Oxidation of manganese salts lowers the pH of the water and

causes more effective removal of manganese.
 Reactions involved in manganese oxidation are as follows:
 Based on the reactions, theoretical amount of manganese
oxidized by 1 ppm of oxidizing material are
KMnO4 = 0.52 ppm; O2 = 3.4 ppm; Cl2 = 0.77 ppm

 Chemical requirements for oxidizing manganese are double

those of iron because of two electrons in manganese oxidation
and only one electron in iron oxidation.

 Thus aeration technique is more effective in removal of Fe and

Mn salts from water. However, the capital cost involved in
aeration treatment is pretty high but the operating cost is very
less.
Removal of Hydrogen sulfide
 Supplies of well water that contain Fe and Mn salts, sometimes
contain hydrogen sulfide with them.
 Treatment with various oxidation materials causes reactions
with H2S which are shown as below.

 Based on the reactions, amounts of oxidizing materials required

to oxide 1 ppm of H2S are
KMnO4 = 6.2 ppm; O2 = 0.5 ppm; Cl2 = 8.3 or 2.1 ppm.
Selecting the treatment method
 As KMnO4 is very costlier, its larger consumption to removes the
salts of Fe & Mn and H2S makes its use prohibitive in water
treatment.
 In practice, aeration followed by chlorination for polishing is
adopted in industries.
 However, organic forms of iron and manganese do not respond to
oxidation quite often and does not respond to chlorine at a usual pH
of 7 to 8.
 Organic forms could removed by coagulation with alum followed
by settling and filtration. Another way is to use manganese zeolite
beds.
 Ferrous sulfate is the main constituent of mine water together with
sulfuric acid and free CO2. Iron removal is generally done by
aeration, neutralization, settling and filtration. CO 2 is removed by
enough aeration thereby bringing down the addition of alkali.
Boilers defects :
Failure in water treatment can cause the following the defects in
boiler which reduces the life span of boiler or making them totally
inoperative.

a) Formation of scale

b) Corrosion

c) Priming & Foaming

d) Caustic embrittlement
• Formation of Scales: When hard water is evaporated in boiler,
the soluble salts of calcium and magnesium along with other
soluble impurities, as silica and alumina comes in the form of
residue.

• This residue settles inside the boiler and the layer and the layer
of this residue on metal surface of boiler is called scales.

• Effect of scales:
Formation of Scales:
• By applying extra fuel, the boiler material which is separated from water by
scale will be overheated and may become softer. When it reaches red hot
condition, the outer surface of it will quickly combine with atmospheric
oxygen and convert to iron oxide. The inner hot surface may also react with
steam and convert to oxide
3 Fe +4 H2O  Fe3O4 + H2
This iron oxide formed is non adherent, comes down as sludge and hence that
spot becomes brittle and damages the boiler.

• By overheating the boiler, additional thermal stresses and resulting strains are
developed on the plates and tubes so that the joints and revets can be
damaged.

• On overheating, the scales on the red hot spot can be cracked due to unequal
thermal expansion coefficient. The water coming in contact with this red hot
spot gets converted to steam resulting in sudden pressure raise which could
cause the explosion of the boiler.
Prevention of Scales:
• Simpler method to remove scale is by use of scraper or knife blade.
• If the scale is brittle, it can be removed by mechanical or thermal
shock. If the scale is hard, it can be removed by chemical treatment
depending upon the scale composition. Carbonate scales can be
removed by 5 – 15 % HCl as the scales are readily soluble in the
acid. Sulphate scale can be removed by EDTA solution.
Precaution of scales:
• By water treatment to removes dissolved and suspended solids /
salts
• By using chemicals to removed carbonate and sulfate salts of Ca
and Mg – Phosphate treatment using mono, di, tri, sodium
phosphate is best to remove residual carbonate and sulfate salts of
Ca and Mg.

This is known as phosphate conditioning.

Corrosion:
 Water containing various impurities especially dissolved gases
such as O2, CO2, H2S and other gases are responsible for
corrosion.
 These impurities corrode the boiler plates and tubes thereby
reducing the life of boiler.
 Among dissolved gases, O2 is most corroding. For boilers
operating at high temperatures, even small amount of O2 causes
serious problems.
 CO2 also corrodes the boiler material. Dissolving in water, it
forms carbonic acid. The acid thus formed slowly attacks the
metal which is then corroded.
 Water containing H2S also corrodes the boiler metal surface.
With water, H2S forms weak dibasic acid. The corrosion
depends on the amount of H2S present in the water.
Dissolved salts in water could also cause boiler corrosion. Chlorides
of calcium, magnesium are readily hydrolyzed to give acids which
attacks the inner surface of the boiler and thus reduces the boiler life .

Acid thus formed reacts on the boiler metal

Prevention of Corrosion:
Degasification: Complete removal of dissolved gases from water.
Removal of oxygen using sodium sulphate

The reaction is quick at higher temperature and in presence of

excess sulphate. However, it increases the salt content of water.
Oxygen can also be removed by the action of hydrazine without
any increase in salt content of water

CO2 is removed by adding ammonia to convert it to insoluble

ammonium carbonate.
 Priming & Foaming:
 Priming is the phenomenon of very rapid boiling of water inside
the boiler with the result that the water particles are mixed with
steam.
 Priming is influenced by the following factors
 Due to the presence of large quantity of organic oily matter,
alkalies and suspended materials, etc.
 It is also caused due to defective design of boiler and wrong
operation. If steam gets condensed in outer tube, the pressure
outside the boiler in this tube may be decreased with the result
that the water inside the boiler jumps and passes with steam
outside the boiler.
 Priming also starts when level of water rises due to foaming. So
priming is generally associated with foaming.
Foaming is the phenomenon of formation of foam or bubbles on the
surface of the water.
Disadvantages:
 The actual height of water in boiler is not judged
 Wastage of heat with the result that it become difficult to keep up
steam pressure and thus efficiency is lowered.
Prevention of priming & foaming: Priming and foaming may be
prevented by following methods:
1. Priming and forming can be prevented to some extent by
controlling the con centration of impurities inside the boiler. This
is dome by complete change of water. This is called blow down of
boiler.
2. Priming and foaming can also be reduced by keeping the water
level as low as possible.
3. The addition of antifoam agents is also satisfactory method for
forming. The agents are easier oil, gallic acid, tannic acid, cotton
oil, tartaric acid, citric acid, etc.
Caustic Embrittlement:
Some times cracks appear inside the boiler particularly at those places
which are under stress such as riveted joints, with the result that the
metal plates becomes brittle. This type of effect is known as caustic
embrittlement .
It is caused by the water containing carbonate and bicarbonate of
alkali metal, sodium hydroxide, etc. Boiler water is softened by lime
soda method, may also contain NaCO 3, it can also get hydrolyzed to
give NaOH.

Na2CO3 + H2O 2 NaOH + CO2

The concentrations of the substances then causing alkalinity in water

is particularly high near the rivets. Thus cracks mostly appear at such
places.
.
Prevention of caustic embrittlement:
 Caustic embrittlement can be prevented by adding certain
chemicals called inhibitors i.e sodium sulphate, sodium
phosphate, etc.

 Besides these substances, certain organic compounds are also

used such as tannin, lignin
Steam Distribution and utilization
Selection of Working Pressure
• What is the right pressure for a given process
Objective should be process temp.
Heating water to 850C can be achieved using
steam at any pressure above atmospheric.
• Would you use steam at –
(a) 2 [Link].
or (b) at 7 [Link].
or (c) superheated at 2barg.2000C?
• For indirect heating, latent heat released will be -
(a) 517.6 Kcal/Kg.
(b) 489.9 Kcal/Kg. 5.3% more consumption
(c) 517.6 Kcal/Kg. At a very slow rate
For indirect heat transfer process -

The right choice is ‘the lowest possible’.

Rule of thumb - Pressure giving T(steam) + 350C

For Direct heat transfer process -

It does not matter so long as you ensure

thorough mixing of steam with the product.
Distributing at High Pressure have the following advantages:

 Smaller bore steam mains needed and therefore less heat

(energy) loss due to the smaller surface area.
 Lower capital cost of steam mains, both materials such as
pipes, flanges and support work and labor.
Lower capital cost of insulation (lagging).
 Dryer steam at the point of usage because of the drying
effect of pressure reduction taking place near the equipment.
 The boiler can be operated at the higher pressure
corresponding to its optimum operating condition, thereby
operating more efficiently.
 The thermal storage capacity of the boiler is increased,
helping it to cope more efficiently with fluctuating loads, and a
reduced risk of priming and carryover.
How Do We Pipe Size?

On the basis of:

 Fluid Velocity
 Pressure Drop
 Greater Cost
 Greater Heat Loss
 Greater Volume of Condensate
Formed

 Lower Pressure to Steam

Users, or
 Not Enough Volume of Steam
 Water Hammer and Erosion
Methods of Steam-pipe Sizing
Velocity Method
 For saturated steam system
 Ideally suited for Process use

Pressure Drop Method

 For superheated steam
 Ideally suited for Power Plants & Co-gen units
Factors governing the method to be used -
Steam Pressure and Temperature
Size of distribution network
Longer lengths
Larger pipe sizes
Criticality of pressure drop & thermal stresses
Mostly for Power plants and HP cogen
Rules of thumb to be followed -
 Maximum velocity 15 m/s for LP wet steam (flash steam)
25 m/s for sat. Steam long lengths
 30 m/s for sat. Steam short tapping
 40 m/s for superheated steam
 Normal pressure drop less than 10% inlet pressure
 Less than 1 kg/cm2 for given length of piping.
 Equivalent length of piping - Add 10% for fittings in the line.
Size the line to carry -

(a) 300 kgs/[Link] at 1 barg to FWT 150 [Link]

(b) 1100 kgs/[Link] at 10 barg to a drier [Link]

(c) Superheated steam 2TPH at 15 barg.300C to turbine at a

distance of 50 m.
 Water hammer - a phenomenon
Steam has low density but high velocity
WP 10 barg Density 5.5 kg/m3 Velocity 25m/s
Condensate has high density but low velocity
WP 10 barg Density 909 kg/m3 Velocity 3m/s

Impact or Momentum = Mass X Velocity

Condensate having 160 times mass density travelling
at 10 times it’s normal velocity will exert
1600 times greater impact.
Water hammer
SAGGING
MAIN

Condensate

Vibration and noise

caused by
waterhammer
Slug of water from
condensate
What is water-hammer?
 Water-hammer is the hammer like impact due to fluid flow in
a pipeline. This can happen in any line carrying two-phase
flow.

 Steam lines with lot of condensed steam not properly drained

Condensate lines with flashing of condensate in the line.

 The effect would be - Severe mechanical vibrations

Heavy leakages from joints
Ruptured pipelines
 Ineffective, and Proper Drain Points
Cross-Section

Steam

Correct Condensate

Steam trap
Pocket
25/30m
m
Cross-Section
Steam

Incorrect
Steam Line Reducers

Correct

Steam

Condensate

Incorrect

Steam
Branch Connections

Steam Steam

Condensate

Incorrect Correct
Drop Leg

Main

Shut off Valve

Trap Set
Warm Up Loads/Running Loads(kg)
per 50m of Steam Main
Steam MAINS SIZE-mm
Pressure
Bar g 50 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600

9.5 15.1 19.7 28.1 38.1 49.4 74 105 139 164 216 272 320 436
9 9.3 11.3 14.1 16.5 20.6 24.5 31.5 39 46.5 51.5 60 64 72 88

9.9 15.7 20.4 29.2 39.6 51.3 77 109 144 171 224 282 332 463
10 9.8 11.9 14.6 16.9 21.3 25 33 41 49 54 62 67 75 90

10.4 16.5 21.6 30.7 41.7 54.1 81.1 115 152 180 236 298 350 488
12 10.9 13.0 15.7 17.7 22.5 26 36 45 53 59 67 73 81 97

Figures in italics represent running loads

Ambient temperature 200C, insulation efficiency 80%
Calculation of Pipe Expansion
Expansion = L x Δ x α (mm)

Where L = length of pipe between anchors (m)

Δ = temperature difference oC
Α = expansion coefficient
Recommended Support Spacing for Steel Pipes
Nom. Pipe Interval of Horizontal run Interval of Vertical run
Size mm. metres metres
Steel/Copper

Bore O/D Mild Steel Copper Mild Steel Copper

12 15 -- 1.0 -- 1.2
15 18 2.0 1.2 2.4 1.4

20 22 2.4 1.4 3.0 1.7

25 28 2.7 1.7 3.0 2.0

32 35 2.7 1.7 3.0 2.0

40 42 3.0 2.0 3.6 2.4

50 54 3.4 2.0 4.1 2.4

65 67 3.7 2.0 4.4 2.4

80 76 3.7 2.4 4.4 2.9

100 108 4.1 2.7 4.9 3.2

125 133 4.4 3.0 5.3 3.6

150 159 4.8 3.4 5.7 4.1

200 194 5.1 -- 6.0 --

250 267 5.8 -- 5.9 --
 Rollers for Steel Pipework

Chair & Roller Chair Roller & Saddle Twin Pipe

Support Bracket
 Air Venting

Balanced Pressure
Air Vent

Steam Main

Thermodynamic Steam Trap

with optional Blowdown and
for ease of maintenance a universal coupling

Air
It is too often overlooked that when steam is first admitted to a
line after a period of shut down, the pipe will usually be full of
air.
Further amounts of air and other non-condensable gases will
enter with the steam, although the proportions of these gases is
normally very small compared to the steam.
Nevertheless, these gases will accumulate within the pipe, and
in the steam spaces of the heat exchangers, when the steam
condenses, unless steps are taken to discharge them.
 Heat Emission from Bare Pipes
Temp. diff. Pipe Size
Steam to Air
15mm 20mm 25m 32mm 40mm 50mm 65mm 80mm 100mm 150mm
o
C W/m

56 54 65 79 103 108 132 155 188 233 324

67 68 82 100 122 136 168 198 236 296 410

78 83 100 122 149 166 203 241 298 360 500

89 99 120 146 179 205 246 289 346 434 601

100 116 140 169 208 234 285 337 400 501 696

111 134 164 198 241 271 334 392 469 598 816

125 159 191 233 285 321 394 464 555 698 969

139 184 224 272 333 373 458 540 622 815 1133

153 210 255 312 382 429 528 623 747 939 1305

167 241 292 357 437 489 602 713 838 1093 1492

180 274 329 408 494 556 676 808 959 1190 1660

194 309 372 461 566 634 758 909 1080 1303 1852
 Calculation of Heat Transfer rate
Q = U A Δt

Where Q = heat transfer rate (W)

U = overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
A = mean surface area (m2)
Δt = temperature difference (K)
 Thermal Insulation
 to reduce heat loss

 to protect from damage/burns

 to provide weather proofing

Desired Properties
Thermal
Temperature Resistance
Low Conductivity
Mechanical
Shock Resistance
Porosity For Air Binding
Chemical
Inert Activity
Insulation Materials
MINERAL WOOL (IS-3677)
- Most commonly used
GLASS WOOL
- Specified as alternative
CALCIUM SILICATE OR MAGNESIA
- Use as Refractory
ASBESTOS
- Used for small lines
 Wire netting
- To Keep Insulation In Place
 Surface Covering
- To Protect Insulation From Damage
- GI/AL SHEET OF 22/24g THK.
- Cement Plaster
- Thermosetting Compound
Insulation Application Methods
 Wire brushing hot surfaces
Preparation of insulation mattresses of correct density (usually

120 or 150 kg/m3)

Wrapping with wire netting (usually 24g gi wire net used)

 Binding the linear joints

surface covering with metal

(usually aluminium cladding with 22g or 24g sheet)

joint preparation with overlap to avoid water seepage.

making boxes for fittings such as valves and flanges.

miter cut shapes for bends

Insulation Standard
Currently Is-7413 Is Applicable
Specifies Methods of
Material Selection
Application of Insulation Materials
Measurements of Finished Surfaces.
Heat Loss From Insulated Surfaces
Temp 25thk 40thk 50thk 65thk 80thk 100thk

50 47 36

100 135 95 73

200 338 244 190 150 122

300 420 310 255 220 170

400 455 370 320 244

[Link] deg.C, Thk. in mm and Heat Loss in Kcal/hr/sq.m.

Economic Thickness of Insulation
TEMP. Dia < 50 Dia > 50 Dia >150 Flats

50 25 25 25 25

100 25 25 40 50

150 25 40 50 65

200 40 50 50 80

300 40 50 65 80

400 50 50 80 80