Some important elements of successful

navigation cannot be acquired from any

book or instructor.

The science of navigation can be taught,

but the art of navigation must be
developed from experience.
Navigation a process of directing the movement of
a ship from one of the earth to the other via a
shortest convenient rout that is consistent with
safety.

The shortest rout may not always be convenient

and safe or the most convenient and safest rout
may not always be the shortest.

This means that the ship has to be navigated

across a body of water that is safe for the vessel to
pass.
TERRESTIAL NAVIGATION 2

0700 -0830 TTH

2/M CESAR T. ENCARNADO

What is terrestrial navigation?

Terrestrial navigation which make use of land marks

such as buoys head lands light houses towers and other
charted markers.
Figure 1.1 The Earth

The earth, the planet in which we live, is

roughly spherical in shape, that means it
is not actually perfect sphere.

Its true shape is that of an “oblate

spheroid”. It is a little bit flattened at the
poles.

Its polar diameter is shorter than its

equatorial diameter by about 11.5 miles
but in most problems of navigation.

The earth is treated as if it is a true

sphere.
For navigational purposes, therefore, the
earth is considered a perfect sphere.
Figure 1.4 The Earth Poles

The earth pole, from which

the earth rotation would be
observed to be anti-
clockwise, is known as the
NORTH POLE.

The other pole from which

the earth’s rotation would NORTH POLE
be observed to be clockwise
is known as the “SOUTH
POLE”

SOUTH POLE
The earth is a sphere with a mean (average) diameter
of 6,880 nautical miles and a circumference of 21,614
nautical mile.
The Earth
 North Pole
Latitude or parallel
of latitudes
Longitude

North Pole East

West

Ram line equator Prime meridian

South Pole
----------------------------------------------------------
 Northern hemisphere

Prim idian--
mer
e --
------------------------------------------
equator

southern hemisphere
 Eastern hemisphere ---------------------------------------------------------------
Western hemisphere
hemisphere----------------------------------------------------------------------
The Meridians

A great circles whose plane passes through the North and

South poles of the Earth would describe two semi-great
circles which are diametrically opposite each other.
These semi great circles are called meridians.
There are 180 degrees
of longitude to the
East of the Prime
Meridian.

when the directional

designator is omitted
these longitudes are
given positive values.
There are also 180
degrees of longitude to
the West of the Prime
Meridian;

when the directional

designator is omitted
these longitudes are
given negative values.
The 180-degree longitude line is opposite the
Prime Meridian on the globe, and is the same
going either east or west
180 degrees 180 degrees
of longitude of longitude
to the East
to the west
of the Prime
of the Prime
Meridian
Meridian
What is a Prime meridian?

Prime Meridian 0° longitude line: the 0° longitude meridian

passing through Greenwich, England, from which other
longitudes are calculated.
Longitude angular distance from prime meridian: the angular distance
east or west of the prime meridian that stretches from the North Pole to
the South Pole and passes through Greenwich, England.

Longitude is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds.

Longitude angular
distance from prime
meridian: the angular
distance east or west of
the prime meridian that
stretches from the
North Pole to the South
Pole and passes through
Greenwich, England.
Longitude is measured
in
degrees,
minutes, and
seconds.
Longitude can also be described as an arc of parallel of
latitude subtended form the meridian of Greenwich.

It can also be the angle at the pole between the plane of

the meridian of Greenwich and the plane of the meridian
of a point on the Earth’s surface
 (C) As an angle at the pole.

(B) As an arc of a
parallel of latitude.

equator equator

(A) An arc of
the equator.
 Northern hemisphere

Southern hemisphere

What is a equator?

Equator imaginary circle around Earth: the imaginary great circle

around Earth that is the same distance from the North and South Poles
and divides Earth into the northern and southern hemisphere
The equator is a great circle at latitude 0.

The poles are single points at latitude 90°.

All other parallels are small circles.

Places on the surface of the Earth like the Philippines that
are located north of the equator are said to be in the northern
hemisphere while Australia is in the southern hemisphere.

Wester
re

n h em
he
isp
m
he

isp
n r

here
ste
Ea
What is latitude or parallel of latitude?

A latitude or parallel of latitude is a circle on the surface of

the Earth parallel to the plane of the equator.

It connects all points of equal latitude.

The equator is a great circle at latitude 0°.

The poles are single points at latitude 90°.

All other parallels are small circles.
1. a. What are small circles? B. What are great circles?

a. Small circles : outline boundary of a cut through a

sphere, plane of which does not pass through its
center is a small circle.
Thus a cut along small circle divides the sphere in to

two unequal parts.

 B. What is a great circles?

Great circle is formed by intersection of spherical

surface with any plane passing through its center it is
that line on the surface of a sphere which divides the
sphere into two equal parts.
 2. Give examples of great circles on the
Earth.

a. Equator is a b. Meridian is a great circle

great circle.
3. What is the difference between equator and
meridian?

a. EQUATOR: imaginary
circle around Earth: the
imaginary great circle
around Earth that is the
same distance from the
North and South Poles and
divides Earth into the
northern and southern
hemisphere.
3. What is the difference between equator and
meridian?

MERIDIAN line of
longitude: an imaginary
line between the North
and South poles that
crosses the equator at right
angles. A meridian is
designated by the degrees
of longitude that it is west
or east of the prime
meridian
4. What is one thing in common between a meridian and
the equator?
These semi circles are called
meridians.
There are 360 meridians that can be
drawn around the earth, which are
spaced at one degree from each
other.
There are 21,600 meridians that can
be drawn around the earth which
are one minute (1’) of arc apart.
These semi circles are imaginary
string that connects north and south
poles of the earth.
4. What is one thing in common between a meridian and
the equator?
Since there is only one great circles that can
satisfy this definition it follows that there is
only one equator on the surface of the earth.

The equator divides the Earth into two

hemispheres.
Northern hemisphere and the Southern
hemisphere.

Place on the Earth like Philippines that are

located north of the equator are said to be in
the northern hemisphere.
Australia is in the southern hemisphere.
The latitude (lat or L)

The angle that a parallel of latitude makes with the plane of the equator
Is called latitude.
This angle is measured at the center of the Earth from the plane of the
equator to the plane of the parallel of latitude.
Latitude should not be confused with parallel of latitude as there is
difference between the two.
Latitude is an angle while parallel of latitude is a circle.
Latitude is also define as an arc of a meridian located between the
equator and the parallel of latitude.
Latitude is name either north or south.

If the olatitude of a point on the Earth’s surface

Ex. 30, this means that the angle subtended by the
parallel of latitude in which thiso particular point is
o
located is 30 from the equator.

Since the same angle can be describe from both

sides of the Equator, a distinction must be made
whether this angle is measured northward or
southward.
 30 degrees North

30 degrees South

Latitude is name either north or south.

If the latitude of a point on the Earth’s surface

o
Ex. 30, this means that the angle subtended by the parallel of latitude in
o
which this particular point is located is 30 from the equator.

Since the same angle can be describe from both sides of the Equator, a
distinction must be made whether this angle is measured northward or
southward.
 Latitude N 25
…

----------------------- d. lat 50-

Diff. latitude 50 degrees …
lat 25 N …
-------------------------- …
Latitude S 25 lat 25 S
…
…

When the latitude of a point on the Earth’s surface is measured northward or

southward from the equator, the same place is said to have a north latitude.

If the latitude is 25 degrees, then the latitude of a place is said to be latitude

25 degrees North. The same is true in South latitude.

Bear in mind that latitude is measured in degrees from 0 to 90 degrees North

or South from the equator to the poles.
 Derive the rules to find the difference of latitude.

1. Latitude the same name (both North or both South) subtract

the lesser latitude from the greater latitude.

2. Latitude different names (one North, one South) add their

latitudes.
 Methods solving diff. of latitude

The best method to solve this kind of problem is to make a

plot of the parallel of the two places.

It will be easy for you to determine the direction of travel of

the ship rather than resort to rules which you apt to forget.

Note further, that the D. latitude is named N or S whenever

the direction of movement is North or South respectively.

When the direction of travel is not specified, difference of

latitude has no name.
 35° 00.7’ N
20° 54.0’ N 14° 06.7’ N

A ship sailed from lat. 14° 06.7’ N and arrived at lat. 35° 00.7 N. find the
difference
A of from
ship sailed latitude
[Link] she made.
14° 06.7’ N and arrived at lat. 35° 00.7 N. find the
difference of latitude that she madedeparture A = 14° 06.7’ N
Lat. ofarrival
[Link] departure BA ==14°
35°06.7’
00.7’NN
Lat. of arrival B = 35° 00.7’ N
Di
D. Latitude = 20° 54.0’ N
 Lat A = 20°38’n
Lat B = 15°22’n d. lat= 5°16’
0 0
 Methods solving diff. of latitude

The best method to solve this kind of problem is to make a

plot of the parallel of the two places.

It will be easy for you to determine the direction of travel of

the ship rather than resort to rules which you apt to forget.

Note further, that the D. latitude is named N or S whenever

the direction of movement is North or South respectively.

When the direction of travel is not specified, difference of

latitude has no name.
 If you are situated directly over the North Pole at such
a distance that you can see the whole Earth.

1. What circle would appear as the outermost circle?

North pole

0 --------------------------------------

Equator
If you are situated directly over the North Pole at such a
distance that you can see the whole Earth.
2 What would be the direction of the Earth rotation?

north pole

Clockwise rotation
If you are situated directly over the North Pole at such a
distance that you can see the whole Earth.

3. How would the parallel of latitude appears?

Circles
 If you are situated directly over the North Pole at such a distance that you
can see the whole Earth.
4. where is the South Pole of the Earth appear

The South pole is on the

opposite side on the
meridian 180° of 180th
meridian of the equator.
South pole

South pole
 What is a longitude? North Pole

The angular distance

from prime meridian: the
angular distance east or
angular distance from prime meridian: the
west ofeast
angular distance the prime
or west of the prime
meridianmeridian that
that stretches fromstretches
the North Pole
to the South
fromPole andNorth
the passes through
Pole to
Greenwich, England. Longitude is measured
theminutes,
in degrees, Southand Pole and
seconds.
passes
Microsoft® through
Encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008
East
Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
west
Greenwich, England.

Longitude is measured in
degrees, minutes, and
seconds
South Pole
The country of England from what reference plane is
longitude is measured?

The building of the Royal

Observatory in Greenwich
England
In the Philippine from what reference plane of longitude
120 degrees east is measured?

The center of the cross on the dome of the

Manila Cathedral Intramuros, as reference
point of 120 degrees east which is the central
meridian of the Philippine archipelago
Western hemisphere Eastern hemisphere
Finding the difference of
longitude (DLO) between two
points on the Earth Surface.

The difference of longitude

between two places is the
Smaller angle at the pole or
the minor Arc of the equator
that is contained between the
Meridian of two places.

figure 1.16 (a) and 1.16 (b).

Figure 1.16(a) illustrates the
(DLO) between places A and B
and A and C longitude a
represents the longitude (east)
of place A.
The difference of longitude between two places is
the Smaller angle at the pole or the minor Arc of
the equator that is contained between the
Meridian of two places.
figure 1.16 (a) and
1.16 (b).
Figure 1.16 (a)

illustrates the
(DLO) between
places A and B and
A and C longitude a
represents the
longitude (east) of
place A.
Longitude a east
represents the
A
longitude (east) of a
place A.
Longitude b represents
the longitude (east) of B
place B.
b
east
Longitude c
represents the c
longitude (west) of
place C.
C west
 Figure 1.16 b represents
the diagram on the plane of
the equator. G represents
the meridian of Greenwich.
Ps represents the South
Pole. The longitude of
a A meridians, A, B, and C, are
shown. The DLO between
C ac these places is also
B indicated. Notice that the
DLO in both figures. 1.16 a
b and 1.16 b, show the DLO
as the smaller angle at the
pole or the minor arc.
Sometimes it is necessary
to give a name to DLO. In
such case the DLO is name
EAST if the direction of
DLO A & C movement is towards the
EAST. It is name WEST if the
direction of movement is
toward WEST.
In such case the DLO is name EAST if the direction of
movement is towards the EAST.
It is name WEST if the direction of movement is toward
WEST.
If they are on opposite side of Greenwich, one
EAST and the other WEST, the DLO is equal to
the sum of their longitudes.

Provided that the sum is not more than 180°,

in which case the DLO is equal to 360° MINUS
the sum of the longitudes
 Long B 35°34’W

Long A 96°54’W

DLO=61°20’W

Same name
Find the DLO between the following places;
example #1. long of A = 96°54’W
long of B = 35°34’W
DLO = 61°20’W
DLO=
 Long A=36°09’E
Example 2
Long B=06°55’E
DLO =29°14’
 Long A=04°00’W
Long B=05°36’E

DLO =09°36’

Long A=04°00’W Long A=04°00’W

Long B=05°36’E Long B=05°36’E
DLO =09°36’ DLO =09°36’
 r
equato
180
0
0
to r
equa
If they are on opposite side of Greenwich, one EAST and the other WEST, the
DLO is equal to the sum of their longitudes. Provided that the sum is not more
than 180°, in which case the DLO is equal to 360° MINUS the sum of the
longitudes.
East
DLO = 18 degrees 43 minutes.
East
If they are on opposite
side of Greenwich, one
EAST and the other 176 25’ e
WEST, the DLO is equal + 164 52’ w
to the sum of their = 340 77’
longitudes.
= 358 120’
Provided that the sum - 340 77’
is not more than 180°, in = 18 43’ E
which case the DLO is
equal to 360° MINUS
the sum of the
longitudes.
 DEPARTURE
It is important to remember at this point, what the students learned
in geometry, about ARCS and CENTRAL ANGLES.

We recall that the LENGTH of an arc of a circle is expressed in linear

units of measurement such as miles, meters and so on.

DEGREES are used represent the measure of an arc.

A THEOREM in GEOMETRY states that “A central angle equals

numerically its intercepted arc”.

That means that if the central angle is 30° its intercepted arc on the
circumference is also equal to 30°.

So regardless of how big or small the circle is the

intercepted arc subtended by the two radii of the same
circle will numerically be equal to the central angle.
Figure 1.19 a where
angle AOB is called a
CENTRAL ANGLE
although the sides of a
central angle determine
a minor and major arc.

We will refer to the

minor arc as the
INTERCEPTED ARC.

Figure 1.19 ( a )-Central angles

equals numerically its intercepted
arc.
Figure 1.19 b, there are
two concentric circles.
D B
The central angle (O) is
central
contained between the O angle (O)
radii OA and OB of the
smaller and radii OC and C A
OD of the bigger circle.

Figure 1.19 (b)

According to the theorem the intercepted arc AB and

CD as shown are both numerically equal to the
central angle , O.
 Figure 1.19 a
Figure 1.19 b

Figure 1.20 is analogous to figure 1.19a and 1.19b.

This time the circles of the Earth are projected.
 G

PsG
meridian of Greenwich

equator.

In figure 1.20 let Ps be the South Pole of the Earth.

The outermost circle represents the Earth’s equator.

The radius PsG represents the meridian of Greenwich.

 G
B E
A D
C

PsE

The radius PsE is the meridian of a point at the equator.

Note that points A and B lie along meridian as E. the two other
concentric circles are parallels of latitude
 B is north of A B E
B is 25°S
A and B are situated on A A is 50°S D
different parallels.
C
D is north of C
therefore, point C, which is C and D are
situated along the same situated on
parallel as A, is also Lat 50°S. different parallels,

A and B are situated on different parallels.

C and D are situated on different parallels,
B is north of A and D is north of C.
let us suppose that the latitude of A is 50°S and the latitude
if B is 25°S. therefore, point C, which is situated along the
same parallel as A, is also Lat. 50°S.
The same situation on can be B, Lat 25°S.
said of point D. its latitude is
also the same as point B, Lat D
25°S. following the theorem 50°
arcs AC, BD and GE are the
intercepted arcs of the central
angle Ps and therefore are Ps
numerically equal to the value AC, BD and GE are the
of the central angle. intercepted arcs of the central
angle Ps

Meaning that if the central

angle (Ps) is 50°, the
intercepted arcs AC, BD and GE
are also 50°.
parallels of departure
latitude is called
departure arcs
length of arcs

Notice however that the length of arcs AC, BD and

GE are not the same, GE being longer than BD and
longer than AC.

The length of the arcs measured along their respective

parallels of latitude is called departure.
1.5 THE GEOGRAPHICAL
COORDINATES
In plane trigonometry the students were
introduced to rectangular “ Cartesian”
coordinates.

Cartesian coordinates define a point relative to

two intersecting lines, called Axes.

If the axes are perpendicular, the coordinates are

rectangular.

Consider this familiar diagram in trigonometry.

There are two axes
in this figure 1.21
 (+) Y

X Axis

Y Axis
By convention all points to the right of the y-axis is
positive or (+).
All points to the left of the y
– axis is negative or (-).

(-) Y (+) Y

X Axis

Y Axis
All points above the x axis is
positive is positive or (+)

(-) Y (+) Y

+X X Axis

Y Axis
All points below the x
axis is negative or (-)

(-) Y (+) Y

+X X Axis
-X

Y Axis
Suppose we would like to
define a point M in figure 1.21

(-) Y (+) Y M

+X X Axis
-X

Y Axis
One will see that point
M is at the point of
intersection of +x and
+y.
(-) Y (+) Y M

M(+3,+4)

+X X Axis
-X

Y Axis
 (-) Y (+) Y
O
3
M(+3,
2 ------
15°
1 ---- +4)
+X 5° 1 2 3 4
X Axis
1 2 3 4
-X

Y Axis
 (-) Y (+) Y

3 O (+3, +4)

2 15°
+X
1
5°
0 5° 10° 15° 20° X AXIS
(-) X

Y AXIS
 Another method of describing a terrestrial position is
to state the direction and distance from a known
bearing.

Example .
The ship is in a position having Palompon
lighthouse bearing 135°(true) at a distance of 3
miles.
This means that the ship is lies 315° (the reciprocal
of 135°) 3 miles from Palompon lighthouse.
This means that the ship is lies 315° (the reciprocal of 135°) 3 miles
from Palomponpon lighthouse.

3 miles dist.

The direction of
a point is known
lighthouse is 135° (true) at a distance of 3 miles. as its BEARING.
The position of points A, B, C, D, E, and F are defined by
the points ofintersection of the parallel of
latitude and the meridian passing through these points.
per hour
A B
A B
 Useful reminders
The length of degree of latitude (measured along a
meridian) is everywhere the same on a sphere, from
the equator to the poles.

One minute of latitude equals one nautical miles.

The length of a degree of longitude (measured along a

parallel of latitude) decreases from 60 nautical miles
at the equator to 30 nautical miles at latitude 60° and
to zero at the poles.

This is the very reason why the longitude scales are

never used to measure distance in the Mercator chart.
Only the latitude scale is used.
ans
a. the length of a degree of latitude(measured along a
meridian) is every where the same on a sphere, from
the equator to the poles. One minute of latitude
equals one nautical mile.

b. The length of a degree of longitude(measured along

a parallel of latitude) decreases from 60 nautical miles
at the equator to 30 nautical miles at latitude 60° and
to zero at the poles.
1. lat. A =10°43’S
lat. B =11°43’N
[Link]=22°26’

lat. B =11°43’N

[Link]=22°26’ 1. lat. A =10°43’S

1. lat. A =10°43’S
lat. B =11°43’N
D Lat =22°26’

lat. B =11°43’N
D Lat. = 22°26’
lat. A =10°43’S
 2. Lat A =34°18’N
Lat B=01°43’N

D lat. =32°35’

Lat A =34°18’N

D lat =32°35’

Lat B=01°43’N
 2. Lat. A =34°18’N
Lat. B=01°43’N

D lat. =32°35’

Lat. A =34°18’N
D lat. =32°35’
Lat. B=01°43’N
C. Find the DLO of
the following
places
30 miles + 60 = 90 miles
o
or 1 degree 30 min.
o
10 05’N
+
o
1 30’
-------
o
11 45’N ship latitude
Formula

S = D/T

D=SxT

T = D/S
Lat. 72 00’ N

Lat. 23 40’ N
3 days x 24 hrs. = 72 hrs.
60 min. = 1 hr.
1 hr. = one degree
72 hrs. or 72 degrees
 S = D/T
18 speed p/h.
D=SxT

60 min./15 min. T = D/S

= 4/18 speed
= 4.5 miles 15 minute travel
320 distance/12 speed S = D/T
= 26 hrs. 7 min.
D=SxT

T = D/S
240 distance/ 24 speed S = D/T
= 10 hrs.
D=SxT
3 dist./24 speed T = D/S
= 0.12 min.
A
B
 S = D/T
11 hrs. 60 min. D=SxT
-
09 hrs. 30 min T = D/S
-------------------
02 hrs. 30 min.

27 miles/2.5 hrs.

= 10.8 p/h.
A nautical chart represents
part of the spherical earth
on a plane surface.

It shows water depth, the

shoreline of adjacent land,
prominent topographic
features, aids to navigation,
and other navigational
information.

It is a work area on which the

navigator plots courses,
ascertains positions, and views
the relationship of the ship to
the surrounding area.

It assists the navigator in

avoiding dangers and arriving
safely at his destination.
Navigators most often use the plane conformal projection known as the
Mercator projection.
The Mercator projection is not perspective, and its parallels can be derived
mathematically as well as projected geometrically.
Its distinguishing feature is that both the meridians and parallels are
expanded at the same ratio with increased latitude.
The expansion is equal to the secant of the latitude, with a small correction
for the ellipticity of the earth.
Since the secant of 90° is infinity, the projection cannot include the poles.
Since the projection is conformal, expansion is the same in all directions and
angles are correctly shown.
Rhumb lines appear as straight lines, the directions of which can be
measured directly on the chart.
Distances can also be measured directly if the spread of latitude is small.
Great circles, except meridians and the equator, appear as curved lines
concave to the equator.
Small areas appear in their correct shape but of increased size unless they
are near the equator.
Direction is the position of one point relative to another
without reference to the distance between them.
 ship’s compass.

Out in the open sea where the navigator is surrounded by a

seemingly boundless horizon, the navigator has no way of
knowing his exact direction of travel except perhaps
knowing that the point here the sun rises is East and the
point where the sun sets is West.

In order to know exactly the direction he is heading, the

navigator needs an instrument that indicates direction
called ship’s compass.
One of the oldest instrument of the navigator is the
magnetic compass, its origins are not recorded by history
but it has been used by several different seagoing
cultures from the time that man discovered navigation.
Despite the invention of the gyrocompass, the magnetic
compass still retains its importance and reliability.

While the former is an extremely accurate instrument. It

is highly complex, dependent on an electrical power
supply and subject to mechanical damage.

The magnetic compass is entirely self contained, simple,

and not easily damaged.
The magnetic compass operates solely under the
principle of magnetism.
The basic mechanism of modern magnetic compasses is
exactly the same as that of the earliest ones.

A small bar magnet freely suspended in the magnetic

field of the earth.

Some refinement have been added during the past

hundred of years for greater accuracy, steadiness of
indication and ease of reading, but the fundamental
meridian remain unchanged.
Figure 3.1 shows a cut away view of a magnetic compass.

The letter C indicates the bowl with its cover secured by a groove
ring G. at the forward side of the bowl is the LUBBERS LINE, which
indicates the direction of the vessels head.

The bowl is fitted with expansion bellows F which permits the bowl
to remain filled as the liquid expands and contracts with
temperature changes.

The bowl is supported in gimbals or double ring hinged on both the

fore and aft and athwart ships axes.

These gimbals permit the compass bowl to remain horizontal, or

nearly so, regardless of the vessels rolling or pitching.
 gimbals or double ring

The Gimbald compass is mounted in binnacle or stand,

made of non magnetic material.
A typical binnacle is shown in figure 3.3 ( the balls on
either side are called quadrantal spheres).
 B

A magnets.

Letter B indicates the compass card which floats on top of a

vertical pin situated at the center of the bottom of the
bowl and acts as a pivot.

To the bottom of this card are attached two or more

magnets.

(letters A) which are aligned with the north south axis of

the compass card.
In order to reduce friction on the pivot and to dampen vibration, the compass
bowl is filled with a clear fluid (letter D) that is not subject to freezing at
normal temperatures. Usually these fluids are either varsol or alcohol. The
card has a float or air chamber (letter E) designed so that it will support the
weight of the card with its attached magnets.
The old form of compass reading uses points where the
compass card is sub divided into 32 points, with one point
equal to 11.25°.

There are four cardinal directions which are known as the

CARDINAL POINTS and another four inter- cardinal
directions known as INTER CARDINAL POINTS.

The cardinal points are NORTH, SOUTH, EAST and WEST.

While the inter cardinals points are [Link], and NW.

reciting the points in correct order, and starting at any
named point is called “Boxing the Compass”.
the old form of compass reading is described in table 3.1.
 old form of compass reading

points measure
angular
North east south west 0°

N by E E by S S by W W by N 11°15’

NNE ESE SSW WNW 22°30’

NE by E SE by E SW by S NW by W 33°45’

NE SE SW NW 45°00

NE by E SE by S SW by W NW BY N 56°15’

ENE SSE WSW NNW 67°30’

E by N S by E W by S N by W 78°45’

EAST SOUTH WEST NORTH 90°00’

With the advent of modern direction finding instruments in navigation
the use of the old form of compass reading has been confined only to
indicate wind direction and sometimes in weather reports, but even
this is fast becoming obsolete as weather facsimile charts now use
other forms of compass reading.

But it still remains a solemn duty and obligation of the navigator to

know how to box his compass and he must possess a commanding
knowledge of correcting courses and bearings from true to compass
and vice versa.

failure on the part of the navigator to show his proficiency in the area
of compass reading and correction is an omission of duty he can never
forgive himself.
The new and modern method of compass reading is the use of the
three figure notation. In this method, direction are reckoned from
000° to 360° clockwise from North.
Example;
OLD FORM NEW FORM

N 000°

E 090°

S 180°

W 270°

N 360°
 3.4 Bearing
Bearing is a horizontal direction generally expressed as an angle
between a reference line extending from a reference point and a line
extending from a reference point to a given direction.

Imagine yourself with a telescope standing on the ground facing North.

At this position, your line of sight is aligned with a meridian. turn a little
to your right and direct your telescope to a nearby tower or tree.

The horizontal angle contained between your first line of sight ( a

meridian) and the imaginary line of sight directed to a tower or tree is
the bearing of the tree or tower.

Since your first line of sight is the TRUE GEOGRAPHIC MERIDIAN, you
call this kind of bearing as the TRUE BEARING of the given point.
The horizontal angle contained between your first line of
sight ( a meridian) and the imaginary line of sight directed to
a tower or tree is the bearing of the tree or tower.
There are a number of reference points and
directions that are used in navigation, such as

magnetic north, geographic north or true north, the

ship head or the heading of another ship.
 true north

object

TRUE BEARING of an object is the horizontal angle between the

direction of the true north and the direction in which the object
lies or bears.
variation
MAGNETIC BEARING of an object is the horizontal angle
between the direction of magnetic north and the
direction of the object.
COMPASS BEARING of an object is the horizontal angle
between the direction of compass north and the direction
of the object.
. One type of bearing which can be obtain by
eye without measurement is a Range Bearing.
Essentially bearing is an angle, although the term is
often used to denote direction.
Example;

Find the true bearing of a lighthouse if the compass bearing

is 140° and the compass error is 10°W
 Dead
ahead

Bro bow
a do n stb
np d o
ort
bo oa
w Br

Broad on port beam

Broad on stb beam

Br
oa
r

d
rte

on
ua

stb
tq

qu
r

a rt
po

er
n
do
oa
Br

Dead
astern
 Course is a direction in which a ship is heading.
Since both bearings and courses are directions, they are,
therefore lines – imaginary lines that may be directed to
any direction.

Most if not all modern ships engaged in international voyages

are fitted with a gyrocompass which takes its reference from the
TRUE NORTH or TRUE GEOGRAPHIC MERIDIAN.

Hence, the course steered by the ship is the angle made by the
ship’s head with the TRUE GEOGRAPHIC NORTH, this course is
known as the TRUE COURSE
Another kind of compass which still compulsory but open
neglected piece of equipment on board a merchant ships today is
a MAGNETIC COMPASS.

This compass uses the magnetic meridian as its reference.

Unfortunately , the magnetic poles of the Earth did not coincide

with the EARTH’S GEOGRAPHICAL POLES.
The NORTH MAGNETIC POLE is approximately located in
the vicinity of LAT.78°N, Long. 105°W and the SOUTH
MAGNETIC POLE approximately located near LAT.65°S,
LONG. 140°E. because of non coincidence, there will
always be some angle between the TRUE and MAGNETIC
meridians (except when the true and magnetic poles are
in the same line wherein the true and magnetic
meridians coincide.
The angle between the two meridians is known as
VARIATION and is name EAST when MAGNETIC NORTH is
on the right of TRUE NORTH, and WEST when
MAGNETIC NORTH is to the left of TRUE NORTH.

The angle that the ship’s head makes with the magnetic
meridian is known as the MAGNETIC COURSE.
 TRUE NORTH

VARIATION
EAST

VARIATION and is name EAST when MAGNETIC

NORTH is on the right of TRUE NORTH
 TRUE NORTH

VARIATION
WEST

VARIATION and is name WEST when MAGNETIC

NORTH is on the left of TRUE NORTH
The angle that the ship’s head makes with the magnetic
meridian is known as the MAGNETIC COURSE.
The magnetic poles are not permanent in their locations.

Therefore variation also undergoes constant changes in

value due to changes in location of the magnetic poles
Variation is the horizontal angle which the magnetic needle
makes with the TRUE MERIDIAN.
The magnetic needle aligns itself parallel to the Earth’s
magnetic lines of force, which force originates from the
magnetic poles on Earth .
the North magnetic pole to which the north point
of the needle is attracted, is situated in the islands
of Northern Canada
The position of magnetic poles are not fixed, but are constantly
moving in unknown paths, apparently completing a revolution around
the geographic poles of hundred years.

The Earth magnetism is irregular and the magnetic poles are not 180°
apart, unlike the geographic poles, because of this, the lines of force
do not flow directly from the South magnetic pole to the North
magnetic pole but their direction is locally variable.
These physical circumstances cause a magnetic needle in the
Atlantic to be deflected in a varying degree to the left of the
TRUE meridian and thus produce westerly variations.
While in the Pacific the needle is deflected to the right of
the TRUE meridian and the variation is easterly.
In as much as the magnetic poles are not diametrically
opposed, the magnetic meridians are not perfect semi
great circles.

Thus it is not true to say that a COMPASS needle will

point to the MAGNETIC north pole when under
influence of the earth’s alone.

That is when the compass needle is lying along the

magnetic meridian it will not necessarily point to the
magnetic north pole.
The magnetic meridian is thus defined a the direction a
compass needle will take up when under the influence of
the Earth’s magnetic field alone.

Therefore, the correct definition of VARIATION should be;

THE ANGLE BETWEEN THE MAGNETIC MERIDIAN AND THE
TRUE MERIDIAN AT ANY PLACE.

The movement of the magnetic poles causes the variation

to increase or decrease of a few minutes yearly.

This amount by which the variation changes yearly is

called the SECULAR CHANGE.
This amount by which the variation changes yearly is
called the SECULAR CHANGE.
N and S represent the NORTH and
SOUTH GEOGRAPHIC POLES.

Mn and Ms represent the NORTH

and SOUTH MAGNETIC POLES
respectively.

Angle Mn O N is the ANGLE

between the TRUE and MAGNETIC
MERIDIANS at point O. this ANGLE
is called VARIATION.
Notice that if the OBSERVERS is
situated at the MERIDIAN N Mn E
S, the NORTH GEOGRAPHIC POLE
is in LINE with the NORTH
MAGNETIC POLE and therefore,
there is ZERO VARIATION.

The same thing can be said of the

value of variation on MERIDIAN N
W Ms S.
Since the magnetic poles of the
EARTH do not coincide with the
GOGRAPHIC POLES, a compass
needle which is aligned with the
magnetic meridian will not
indicate true direction.

This is the reason why variation

has different values at different
location on EARTH.
The angle between the two meridians is
known as VARIATION and is name EAST when
MAGNETIC NORTH is on the right of TRUE
NORTH, and WEST when MAGNETIC NORTH is
to the left of TRUE NORTH. The angle that the
ship’s head makes with the magnetic meridian
is known as the MAGNETIC COURSE
ADDED when EAST
SUBTRACTED when WEST

it can be seen that the while variation on figure

name of variation is EAST 3.14 b, is WEST.

It can be seen further that to Convert MAGNETIC COURSE to TRUE COURSE,

the Variation is ADDED when EAST and SUBTRACTED when WEST
 formula
variation East = +
variation West = -
true course - variation = magnetic course
magnetic course + variation= true course
Formula

deviation East = +

deviation West = -

magnetic course - deviation = compass course

compass course + deviation = magnetic course

When the magnetic compass is installed onboard a ship,
its compass needle is forced to turn horizontally and
tends to align itself with the Earth’s magnetic field.

In a steel ship, however, it is not free to do so because

the steel structure which has magnetic properties of their
own which tend to deflect or deviate the compass needle
away from the magnetic meridian.

This deflection between the NORTH and SOUTH AXIS of

the compass card and the MAGNETIC MERIDIAN is called
DEVIATION.
u
Dev. E.

Var. E

C/e E.
Dev. W Var.E
This is a very good aid to memory as the word LEAST rhymes with EAST
AND THE WORD BEST rhymes with WEST.

Simply interpreted, this means that if the COMPASS bearing of the

OBJECT is LESSER or (least) than the TRUE bearing, the COMPASS error is
EAST.

On the other hand, if the COMPASS bearing is greater (best) than the
TRUE bearing, the COMPASS error is WEST.

Then you might ask. Where are you going to get the TRUE bearing of the
object? Answer ; from the CHART.

The navigator must bear in mind when using a compass on board ship,
the direction that his ship is heading is called a COMPASS COURSE and
must be CORRECTED for COMPASS error to obtain the TRUE course.
So when COMPAS SCOURSEs are considered the
following definitions must apply

TRUE COURSE (T/C)- the direction of the ship’s head RELATIVE to

the direction of the TRUE NORTH.

It is the HORIZONTAL ANGLE between the DIRECTION of TRUE

NORTH and the SHIP;S HEAD
 Magnetic north

ship’s head

MAGNETIC COURSE (M/C)- the HORIZONTAL angle between

the DIRECTION of MAGNETIC NORTH and the DIRECTION of
the SHIP’S HEAD.
 Compass north

Ship’s head

COMPASS COURSE (C/C) – is the HORIZONTAL ANGLE

between the DIRECTION of COMPASS NORTH and the
DIRECTION of the SHIP’SHEAD.
A vessel is on course 215° true in the area where the variation is 7°W.
the deviation is 1.5 W . A lighthouse bears 306.5° by magnetic compass.

Required;
a. magnetic compass d. magnetic bearing of the lighthouse
b. compass error e. true bearing of the lighthouse
c. compass course f. relative bearing of the lighthouse
T/c = 215 C/B = 306.5
+ +
V= 7 D = 1.5
a. MC = 222 d. M/B = 305.0
+ _
D = 1.5 V = 7.0 W
b. C/C = 223.5 e. T/B = 298.0
_
D=1.5W T/C = 215
f. R/B = 083
+
V=7.0W
c. CE = 8.5 W
 A vessel is on course 215° true in the area where the variation is 7°W.
the deviation is 1.5 W . A lighthouse bears 306.5° by magnetic compass.

CE
M/B = 305.0
V = 7.0 W
T/B = 298.0

T/C = 215

f. R/B = 083

R/B = 083

true
.5
23 2
=2 =2
2
C/C
MC
T/C = 215 0W
D=1.5W V=7.
 formula
true course
compass course
- +
Variation deviation
_________________ - _________________+
magnetic course magnetic course
+
- variation
deviation _________________+
_________________ - true course
compass course

variation East = + deviation East = +

variation West = - deviation West = -

magnetic course - deviation = compass

true course - variation = magnetic course course
magnetic course + variation= true course compass course + deviation = magnetic
course
A vessel is on course 215° true in the area where the variation is 7°W.
the deviation is 1.5 W . A lighthouse bears 306.5° by magnetic compass.

deviation is 1.5 W
variation is 7°W

Required;
a. magnetic compass
b. compass error
c. compass course course 215° true

lighthouse bears 306.5

d. magnetic bearing of the lighthouse

e. true bearing of the lighthouse
f. relative bearing of the lighthouse
 m/c = 222°
t/c = 215°
Var. = + 7° w
Required;

a. Magnetic course

t/c = 215°
Var. = + 7° w ( why +?)
----------------
m/c = 222°

A vessel is on course 215° true in the area where the variation is 7°W. the
deviation is 1.5 W . A lighthouse bears 306.5° by magnetic compass
 m/c =222° c/c = 223.5°

Dev.= + 1.5°w

Required

b. Compass course

m/c =222°
Dev.= + 1.5°w ( why +?)
-------------------
c/c = 223.5°

A vessel is on course 215° true in the area where the variation is 7°W. the
deviation is 1.5 W . A lighthouse bears 306.5° by magnetic compass
 Compass error = 8.5w Variation = 7.0w
Required Deviation =1.5w
Compass error

Deviation =1.5w
Variation = 7.0w
-----------------------
c. Compass error = 8.5w

A vessel is on course 215° true in the area where the variation is 7°W. the
deviation is 1.5 W . A lighthouse bears 306.5° by magnetic compass
Required

d. Magnetic bearing of the lighthouse

c/b= 306.5°
Dev= -1.5w
----------------
m/b= 305.0° c/b= 306.5°
Dev= -1.5w 305.0°
Required
True bearing

m/b=305.0°
Var.=-7.0w
--------------- 7.0w
e. t/b=298.0° t/b=298.0°
m/b=305.0°
Required
t/c=215°
f. Relative bearing of the
lighthouse

t/b=298.0°
t/c=215°
---------------- t/b=298.0°
r/b=083°

r/b=083°

It can be seen that the TRUE COURSE can be obtain

by applying the errors VARIATION,DEVIATION and
COMPASS error to the SHIP TRUE COURSE.
 The ship’s heading by compass is 327°. The deviation of the compass is 4°E and the
variation of the locality is 20°W. find the ship’s true course.
4°E
311°= true course
327
20°W
327 ship compass heading

20 W
_

4E
____
16 compass error

327
-
16
= 311 ship’s true course
T/C=154
T/C=198
T/C=13
M/C= 32
t/c=86
M/C= 324

324
 C/C 19

C/C 19
C/C 45
C/C 345
t/c = 147
+v= 3E
m/c= 150
-- v= 5W
t/c= 145

t/c= 145
m/c= 150
 t/c= 254
-- v= 5 w
m/c=249
+d = 3e
c/c =252

c/c =252

m/c=249
true course compass course
variation deviation
_________________ - _________________+
magnetic course magnetic course
deviation variation
_________________ - _________________+
compass course true course

variation East = +
variation West = -

true course - variation = magnetic course

magnetic course + variation= true course
4.1 a line of position (LOP) is simply a line drawn on a
chart at any point of which the ship is situated.

If a true bearing of the lighthouse is observed by a

navigator on the ship and this bearing line is plotted on
the chart passing through the lighthouse as in figure 4.1
the navigator can say with certainty that on that
particular time his ship’s position somewhere along this
line.
Not all position lines from terrestrial objects are straight
lines.
If the distance of the ship from a chart shore object is
known and a circle is drawn with the object as the center
and the radius equal to the distance of the ship from
object, the ship is assumed to be situated somewhere
along the circumference of this circle.

Such circle is known as the circle of position.

The Lighthouse and black
buoy are in range.
(range objects)

The lighthouse and the

black buoy are in range
line of the ship’s position.
(range bearing)
Circles of position are label in the same general manner as straight
lines of position.

The time is placed above the line and the distance below.

The time may be inside or out side the circle as determined by the
curvature of the arc.
Reminder on LOPs; lops are very valuable to a navigator, but it
should be born in mind that they can be in error became of
imperfection in plotting.
Human limitations, and errors to bearings not correctly applied.
4.2 A FIX
When two lines of position intersect, the position of the
ship is at the point of intersection.

In selecting objects to be observed for a line of position,

fixed shore objects are to be preferred to floating
objects, near objects to be preferred to distant ones and
as far as possible the angle of cut is as near to 90° as
possible.
 Methods of obtaining a FIX;

1. By Cross Bearing; this is the most common or perhaps the most reliable
method of fixing a ship position. Two simultaneous bearings of two suitably
placed shore objects and obtaining two LOPs from them. This method is
illustrated in figure
4.5. fix by cross bearing.
The fix is at the point of intersection of the two LOPs
Figure 4.6 THE COCKED HAT
Note; Points E,F,G are possible positions of the ship
If the three LOPs which are obtained from a bearing of the points, A,B,
and C are drawn in the chart, as shown in Figure 4.6, the ship’s
position would be reckoned as being at position F.

Sometimes the navigator would wish to have another bearing of

another shore object to serve as a check bearing.
When three LOPs are drawn on a chart, they do not usually intersect a
t a common point ( except perhaps for every experienced or very
inexperienced navigator).
The three LOPs usually form a small triangle which known as cocked
hat.
in this case, the point of intersection of two LOPs that is the nearest to
danger should be considered to allow for a margin of safety.
 FIGURE 4.7- FIX BY A BEARING AND A RANGE

2. By a bearing and a range. A single range bearing crossed with any

other bearing line establishes a fix.
 Ship fix position

Figure 4.8 – FIX BY TWO RANGES

3. By two ranges- two ranges are seldom available

even when navigating along the coast but if they do occur, they
become an absolute means of obtaining a fix.
 distance=
7.5miles

1227 fix

Figure 4.9 – A PLOT OF BEARING AND DISTANCE OF THE SAME OBJECT

4. By bearing and distance of the same object—( a ship is

on course 090° T, speed 10 knots.

At 1227, a radar bearing of lighthouse A was taken to be

350°T, dist 7.5 miles.
Plot and label the 1227 fix
 5. By bearing and distance of different objects.
This method can be best explained by solving this problem.
At 1425, a ship on course 135°T, speed 10 knots sights a bearing of
Tower A to bear 350°T. at the same time, the distance from a
headland marked by another Tower B was taken by radar to be 5
miles.
Plot and label 1425 fix.

Solution; plot the bearing of Tower A. with a compass

divider, describe a circle of position from Tower B with
equal to distance from it.
The 1425 Fix is the point of intersection of the LOP and
the circle of position
 Tower A to bear 350°T.

Solution;

plot the bearing of Tower B was taken by

Tower A. with a radar to be 5 miles.
compass divider,

describe a circle of 1425 fix

position from Tower B
with equal to distance
from it.

The 1425 Fix is the

point of intersection
of the LOP and the
circle of position course 135°T, speed 10 knots
 Tower A to bear 350°T. Tower B was taken by
radar to be 5 miles.

At 1425, a ship on course

135°T, speed 10 knots sights
a bearing of Tower A to bear
1425
350°T. at the same time, the
distance from a headland
marked by another Tower B
was taken by radar to be 5
miles.
Plot and label

course 135°T, speed 10 knots

 Figure 4.11 FIX BY RELATIVE BEARING AND ONE ANGLE

Suppose a ship is heading 090°T with the lighthouse L

abeam to starboard side, at the same time the angle
between the lighthouse and a church spire is 40°.

Solution; first plot the relative bearing of the lighthouse,

then draw a line that cuts the first LOP at an angle of 40°.
The fix is at the point of intersection of the two LOPS.
FIGURE 4.12 PLOTTING A D.R

The process by which the ship is carried forward by

courses and distances from the last fix is called dead
reckoning.
When the navigator has no means of fixing his ship’s
position he resorts to calculating the distance run.
Given the speed of his ship and the elapsed time from the
last fix, he then measures the distance run along the
course line drawn from the last fix.
The calculated position so found is called the dead
reckoning position or D.R.
In modern navigation, a D.R position is one that has been
worked up from the last psition which was obtain from
celestial or terrestrial objects and makes no allowance for
current and leeway.
DR,. Position 0900 hr.
X

Fix 0800 hr.

10 speed
In modern navigation, a D.R position is one that has been
worked up from the last position which was obtain from
celestial or terrestrial objects and makes no allowance for
current and leeway.
Exercise #1 Illustrates applying the rules of dead reckoning;

[Link] least every hour on the hour.

2. after every change of course or speed.
3. after every fix or running fix.
4. after plotting a single line of position.

Clearing the harbour at 0900 the navigator obtain a last visual fix,

at 0900 departure the officer orders a course of 090°T and speed of 10 knots,

at 1000 the navigator plots a DR position at 1030 the officer orders a course
change to 060°T,
at 1100 the officer changes back to 090°,

at 1200 the officers changes course to 180° and speed of 5 knots.

Required; Plot the typical dead reckoning and applied the rules.
 Exercise #1 Illustrates applying the rules of
dead reckoning;
1. Clearing the
5.
harbour at 0900
the navigator
obtain a last visual 4.
fix,
2.
3.
1 6
2. at 0900 departure the 5. at 1100 the officer changes
officer orders a course of back to 090°,
090°T and speed of 10
7
knots
6. at 1200 the officers
changes course to 180° and
3. at 1000 the
speed of 5 knots.
navigator plots a DR
position
7. At 1300 the officers
changes course to ?
4. at 1030 the officer
orders a course change
to 060°T,
AB
AB
the LOP (AB) was plotted at the time of this observation.

The ship may be assumed to lie at any point along this

LOP.
The ship sailed a distance of let us assume
10 miles, on a course of 135°T. if
 M
M

if the ship is at position M when the bearing of the point A

was taken, then after making this run, she would be at N.
 M
ship was at O

she would be at P after making

10 miles.

If however the ship was at O when the bearing was

taken, she would be at P after making 10 miles.
 Q at R after making the run.
ship is at Q

If the ship is at Q when the observation was made, she

would be at R after making the run.
It will be noticed that a straight line may be
drawn through points N, P, and R, and the line
is parallel to the first position line AB
 Figure 4.15 the transferred of LOP
The transferred of position line is label as shown in figure 4.15,
to plot the transferred LOP mark off from any point on the first
LOP, a line representing the course and distance made from the
time of observation to the time at which the transferred LOP is
required.

Through the end of this line draw a line parallel to the first LOP.
This is the transferred LOP.
Figure 4.16 the ship’s position is somewhere on the line YZ at
0900. [Link] E to
bear 020°true at 2. the ship was
0800 steaming at 10
Example; knots on a course
A navigator on a ship of 040° true at
proceeding up a channel 0800
observed lighthouse E to
bear 020°true at 0800.
3. at 0830, the course
the ship was steaming at 10 was changed to 080°
knots on a course of 040° true.
true at 0830, the course was
changed to 080° true.
position line at 0900.
Plot the transferred position
line at 0900.
the LOP (AB) was plotted at the time of this observation.
The ship may be assumed to lie at any point along this LOP. The ship sailed
a distance of let us assume 10 miles, on a course of 135°T. if
the ship is at position M when the bearing of the point A was taken,
then after making this run, she would be at N.

If however the ship was at O when the bearing was taken, she
would be at P after making 10 miles.

If the ship is at Q when the observation was made, she would be at R

after making the run. It will be noticed that a straight line may be
drawn through points N, P, and R, and the line is parallel to
the first position line AB
The navigator obtained the distance of
from point M e g.. X miles.
This would place the ship somewhere
on the circumference of a circle M and
radius X miles.
If she then sails along her course for a
distance d miles, her position will then
be on the circumference of the
transferred circle, with the same radius
and with center M’.
The position M’ can be found by laying
off the course and distance travel from
M.
 Figure 4.18 transferring a circle of position
Example
At 1345, the distance of a headland marked by a
lighthouse M was taken at 6 miles. The ship’s
course is 100° true, speed 12 knots. At 1445, the light
P bore 030° true.
Plot the running fix at the time of the second
bearing.
1345

running fix at the time of

the second bearing.

ship’s
cours
e is 100
° true
, spee
d 12 k
nots.
6 miles
The running fix

This method fixing the ship position can be used to advantage when it
is impossible to obtain simultaneous position lines.

How to do a Running fix

The two LOP are obtained at different times and the fix is made by
transferring the first LOP to the time of taking the second LOP.

The point fo inter section of transferred LOP And the second LOP is ship
Rfix at the time of the second observation.

Example

At 0900, the lighthouse S bore 320° T and at 1000 it bore 015° T.

course 247° and speed 12 knots. Plot the running fix at 1000.
 Example

At 0900, the lighthouse S

bore 320° T and at 1000 it
bore 015° T. course 247°
and speed 12 knots. Plot
the running fix at 1000.

Plot the first LOP at [Link] any point along the first LOP, plot the ship’s course and
distance sailed (247° and 12 miles). Transfer the first LOP at the extremity of the
distance measured.
Plot the second LOP at 1000. the intersection of the second LOP and the transferred of
LOP is the running fix.
 0900, the
1000 it bore 015° T. review
lighthouse S bore
320° T
Example

At 0900, the lighthouse

S bore 320° T and at
1000 it bore 015° T.
course 247° and speed
12 knots.
Plot the running fix at
speed 12 knot u r se
X .co
7 ° and
24 d 12
1000.
spee s.
t
kno
Plot the first LOP at [Link] any point along the first LOP, plot the ship’s course and
distance sailed (247° and 12 miles). Transfer the first LOP at the extremity of the
distance measured.
Plot the second LOP at 1000. the intersection of the second LOP and the transferred of
LOP is the running fix.
Meaning and purpose of the log book

On board the ships the expression to log means record.

A log book is a book in which is kept a written record of

the movements of a ship with regards to courses, speed,
positions, and other information of interest to navigators
and important events that happen on board the ship.
The real purpose of ship deck log book is to
serve as an official record of the ships history
during her life time voyage, it is a detailed
sources of factual data.

A ship log book is a legal documents

and must be registered in the country whose
flag the ship is flying. In the Philippines
registered ships log book is registered by the
Maritime Industry Authority.
The deck log book, the bell book,
the engineers bell book are legal
records and can be used as
evidence before legal authorities.
All entries must be hand written and the
remarks must be legible and signed by the
officer in charge of the watch with her
signature over his printed name.
 In almost all merchant ships, the deck log book consist of
two(2) parts and describe each;

•Tabular data section

• Remarks section

• Tabular data section-contains information concerning tine

of entry, courses, weather and meteorological information and
the ship’s departure and arrival drafts, contents of fresh water
tanks, water ballast and bilge soundings.

• Remark section-which is to be filled up by the officer on

watch regarding changes of courses and all other noteworthy
events that occurred during the watch.
Planning
The navigation charts are the most Important part
of a ship’s navigational resources.

The Navigation Officer selects the most appropriate

charts from the Catalogue of Admiralty Charts and
other Hydrographic Publications (NP 131)’usually
referred to as the Admiralty Chart
•What is the first step in the navigation process??

age
ass
g aP
n in
l an
P
 •When the execution of voyage plan starts and
ended?

Starts from the time the ship’s last line is cast off from the
pier of the port of departure and ends at the time when
the ship is secured alongside the pier of the port of
destination.
When the implementation of voyage plan
begins?

It begins from the time the pilot is

dropped off at the point of departure
(port of departure) and ----------
ends at the time when the pilot
is embarked at the point of
arrival (port of destination).
Execution - the carrying out of an action, instruction, command, or
movement. implementation to put something into effect or action.
The planned courses are laid out in conjunction with the
following Philippine Charts;

Philippine Chart No. Description of Charts

•4255 •Manila Bay and Approaches

•4214 •Verde Island Passage
•4714
•South western Luzon and Mindoro
•4410 •Tablas Island and Vicinity

•4718 •Panay ,Negros and Cebu with parts of

Bohol and Masbate
•4427 •East Coast of Cebu
 Chapter 6 PASSAGE PLANNING

Laying out course

Measuring distance

Computing the ship speed

Computing estimated time of arrival

PASSAGE PLANNING - is the first step in navigation process

the plan begin before the ship depart from port and

end at the point of arrival of the port of destination