What is Behaviorism?
a learning theory that only focuses on objectively
observable behaviors is a worldview that operates on a principle of stimulus-response that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior in the learner.
Behaviorism Advocates
y John B. Watson (1878-1958) and B. F. Skinner
(1904-1990) are the two principal originators of behaviorist approaches to learning.
John B. Watson: Classical Conditioning
y Watson believed that human behavior is a result
from specific stimuli that elicited certain responses. y Watson's view of learning was based in part on the studies of Ivan Pavlov. y Pavlov rang a bell when he gave food to the experimental dogs. He noticed that the dogs salivated shortly before they were given food.
y He discovered that when the bell was rung at
repeated feedings, the sound of the bell alone (a conditioned stimulus) would cause the dogs to salivate (a conditioned response). Pavlov also found that the conditioned reflex was repressed if the stimulus proved "wrong" too frequently; if the bell rang and no food appeared, the dog eventually ceased to salivate at the sound of the bell.
Figure 1. This illustration shows the steps of classical conditioning.
1. Food= salivation 2. Food + Stimulus = salivation (conditioned stimulus) 3. Bell alone produces salivation (conditioned response)
B. F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning
y His model was based on the premise that satisfying
responses are conditioned, while unsatisfying ones are not. y Skinner remarked that "the things we call pleasant have an energizing or strengthening effect on our behavior y Through Skinner's research on animals, he concluded that both animals and humans would repeat acts that led to favorable outcomes, and suppress those that produced unfavorable results
y If a rat presses a bar and receives a food pellet, he
will be likely to press it again. Skinner defined the bar-pressing response as operant, and the food pellet as a reinforcer. y Punishers, on the other hand, are consequences that suppress a response and decrease the likelihood that it will occur in the future. If the rat had been shocked every time it pressed the bar that behavior would cease. Skinner believed the habits that each of us develops result from our unique operant learning experiences (Shaffer, 2000).
Figure 2: This illustration illustrates operant
conditioning.
The mouse pushes the lever and receives a food reward. Therefore, he will push the lever repeatedly in order to get the treat.
Educational Implications
Behaviorist techniques have long been
employed in education to promote behavior that is desirable and discourage that which is not. Among the methods derived from behaviorist theory for practical classroom application are contracts, consequences, reinforcement, extinction, and behavior modification.
Contracts
y Simple contracts can be effective in helping
children focus on behavior change. The relevant behavior should be identified, and the child and counselor should decide the terms of the contract. y It is helpful if teachers and parents work together with the student to ensure that the contract is being fulfilled.
Examples: A student is not completing his/her homework. The teacher and the student design a contract providing that the student will stay for extra help, ask parents for help, and complete assigned work on time. Teacher will be available after school, and during free periods for additional assistance. A student is misbehaving in class. The teacher and student devise a behavioral contract to minimize distractions. Provisions include that the student will be punctual, will sit in front of the teacher, will raise hand with questions or comments, and will not leave his seat without permission.
Consequences
y Consequences occur after the "target" behavior
occurs, when either positive or negative reinforcement may be given. y Consequences may be positive or negative, expected or unexpected, immediate or long-term, material or symbolic (a failing grade), emotional/interpersonal or even unconscious.
Positive reinforcement is presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability of a response. This type of reinforcement occurs frequently in the classroom. Teachers may provide positive reinforcement by: Smiling at students after a correct response. Commending students for their work. Selecting them for a special project. Praising students' ability to parents.
Negative reinforcement increases the probability of a response that removes or prevents an adverse condition. It increases the likelihood of a behavior, as does positive reinforcement. Negative implies removing a consequence that a student finds unpleasant. Negative reinforcement might include: Obtaining a score of 80% or higher makes the final exam optional. Perfect attendance is rewarded with a "homework pass."
Punishment involves presenting a strong stimulus that decreases the frequency of a particular response. Punishment is effective in quickly eliminating undesirable behaviors. Examples of punishment include: Students who fight are immediately referred to the principal. Late assignments are given a grade of 0". Three tardies to class results in a call to the parents. Failure to do homework results in after-school detention (privilege of going home is removed).
Table1. Reinforcement and punishment comparison
REINFORCEMENT (Behavior Increases) POSITIVE (Something is added) Positive Reinforcement Something is added to increase desired behavior Ex: Smile and compliment student on good performance Negative Reinforcement Something is removed to increase desired behavior Ex: Give a free homework pass for turning in all assignments PUNISHMENT (Behavior Decreases) Positive Punishment Something is added to decrease undesired behavior Ex: Give student detention for failing to follow the class rules Negative Punishment Something is removed to decrease undesired behavior Ex: Make student miss their time in recess for not following the class rules
NEGATIVE (Something is removed)
Extinction
decreases the probability of a response by contingent withdrawal of a previously reinforced stimulus. Examples of extinction are: A student has developed the habit of saying the punctuation marks when reading aloud. Classmates reinforce the behavior by laughing when he does so. The teacher tells the students not to laugh, thus extinguishing the behavior.
A teacher gives partial credit for late
assignments; other teachers think this is unfair; the teacher decides to then give zeros for the late work. Students are frequently late for class, and the teacher does not require a late pass, contrary to school policy. The rule is subsequently enforced, and the students arrive on time.
Behavior modification
Behavior modification is a method of eliciting
better classroom performance from reluctant students. It has six basic components: 1. Specification of the desired outcome (What must be changed and how it will be evaluated?) One example of a desired outcome is increased student participation in class discussions.
2. Development of a positive, nurturing environment (by removing negative stimuli from the learning environment). In the above example, this would involve a student-teacher conference with a review of the relevant material, and calling on the student when it is evident that she knows the answer to the question posed. 3. Identification and use of appropriate reinforcers (intrinsic and extrinsic rewards). A student receives an intrinsic reinforcer by correctly answering in the presence of peers, thus increasing self-esteem and confidence.
4. Reinforcement of behavior patterns develop until the student has established a pattern of success in engaging in class discussions. 5. Reduction in the frequency of rewards--a gradual decrease the amount of one-on-one review with the student before class discussion. 6. Evaluation and assessment of the effectiveness of the approach based on teacher expectations and student results. Compare the frequency of student responses in class discussions to the amount of support provided, and determine whether the student is independently engaging in class discussions (Brewer, Campbell, & Petty, 2000).
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SUMMARY
y Using behaviorist theory in the classroom can be
rewarding for both students and teachers. Behavioral change occurs for a reason; students work for things that bring them positive feelings, and for approval from people they admire. They change behaviors to satisfy the desires they have learned to value. They generally avoid behaviors they associate with unpleasantness and develop habitual behaviors from those that are repeated often. y A behavior that goes unrewarded will be extinguished. Consistently ignoring an undesirable behavior will go far toward eliminating it
