Chapter 2: Modeling Mechanical Systems

• Mechanical systems are perhaps the most intuitive systems to model, since
models are derived from applying Newton’s 2nd law (F = ma) to each mass (or
inertia) element in a mechanical system

• A mechanical system possesses the following fundamental characteristics:

– Inertia (a force or torque is required to accelerate the body)
– Stiffness (any deformation is met with a resisting force or torque)
– Energy dissipation (motion in a resistive medium will cause energy loss) (Damper)

• Therefore, a mechanical system can be modeled by using three basic elements:

– Inertia elements
– Stiffness elements
– Friction elements
 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws
Inertia Elements
• Inertia elements include masses m (translational systems) and moments of inertia
J (rotational systems)

J   r 2 dm Moment of inertia (general)

1
I x  mR 2
2
1
J  mR 2 Moment of inertia 1
I y  I z  mR 2
2 (uniform disk with radius R)
4

• Inertia elements can store potential energy (PE) due to position in a gravity field
and kinetic energy (KE) due to motion
1 2
mx translational system KE
2
PE = mgh KE = 1 2
J rotational system KE
2
 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws
Stiffness Elements
• When a mechanical element stores energy due to a deformation, it can be modeled by
a stiffness element, such a linear spring constant for translational systems, or a
torsional spring constant for rotational systems

• For a linear or ideal spring (below) the force-displacement relationship is

Displacemen
t (m)
Positive convention for
displacement x is to the right
F  kx

spring Spring
constant
(N/m)
 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws
Stiffness Elements (2)
• When both ends of a spring are free to move, then the force required to stretch
or compress a spring depends on the relative displacement

F  k ( x2  x1 )
Force Deflecting the free ends of the spring
Unstarched equilibrium

If x2=0.25 and x1=0.15 If x2=0.15 and x1=0.25

Tensile force proportional to displacement Compressive force proportional to displacement

of 0.1m exist (Positive) of 0.1m exist (Negative)
 Torsional Stiffness Elements
• For an ideal torsional spring, the torque-displacement relationship is T = k, where T =
torque (N-m),  = angular displacement from the untwisted position (rad),

Torsional
spring
Clockwise direction
+ve angular displacement T  k (N-m/rad)

• When both ends of a spring are free to rotate

• Practical mechanical spring exhibit non-linear relationship when subjected to extreme

displacement.
• It should be noted that spring elements can be used to model stiffness in a mechanical system;
they do not necessarily have to represent physical springs.
 Spring Constants:
• Rod or shaft in tension/compression:

EA
k
L Moment of inertia is a measurement of an
object’s resistance to angular acceleration.
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity, A = cross- Polar moment of inertia is a measurement of
sectional area, L = length an object’s resistance to torsion (twisting).

• Rod or shaft in torsion:

• Shaft angular deflection due to the applied torque
Polar moment of
d 4 G inertia of shaft
k
32 L

G = shear modulus of elasticity, L = length of the shaft d = diameter of rod

 Spring Constants: Examples
• Coiled, round-wire spring under axial load:
d 4G G = shear modulus of elasticity, N = number of coils,
k R = coil radius, d = wire diameter
64 R 3 N
• Coiled, round-wire spring in torsion:

d 4E
k G = shear modulus of elasticity, N = number of coils,
128 RN R = coil radius, d = wire diameter

• Coiled, square-wire spring in torsion:

a4E
k a = length of square cross-section of wire
24RN
 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws
Friction Elements
• When a mechanical element dissipates energy due to friction, it can be modeled by a damper (or
dashpot) element
– Friction or damper elements (below) provide energy-dissipative forces when relative motion exists
between two bodies
– For a linear or ideal damper (below) the force-velocity relationship is
F  b( x 2  x 1 )

where F = friction force (N), x 2  x 1 is the velocity of the piston relative to the cylinder (m/s) and b =
“viscous friction coefficient” (N-s/m)

x 2
F  bx 2  x 1 
Translational
Damper
viscous friction
x 1 coefficient(N-s/m)
 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws
Friction Elements (2)
• For an ideal torsional (rotational) damper, the resistive torque is proportional to the relative
angular velocity
T  b  b(2  1 )  b(2  1 )
Torsional viscous
friction coefficient(N-m-
s/rad)
• As with the spring element, a damper element is a generic method for modeling friction in a
mechanical system; it does not have to represent a physical piston-cylinder dashpot

Generic symbols for damper elements: (a) translational, (b) rotational

 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws
Friction Elements (3)
• It should be noted that an ideal spring has no mass or friction, and an ideal
damper has no mass or stiffness
– Therefore, the inertia, stiffness, and friction characteristics of a mechanical system are
lumped into their respective elements

• Friction can involve a nonlinear relationship between force and velocity

– Coulomb (dry) friction
– Square-law friction (e.g., aerodynamic drag)
 Mechanical Dampers/Dashpots

Adjustable linear
pneumatic dashpot/dampers

Rotary fluid dampers

Heavy-duty
shock absorber
 Modeling Mechanical Systems:
Mechanical Transformers
• Mechanical transformers: mechanical devices that transform motion or force (lever and gears)

• Ideal lever (no inertia and friction): cannot store or dissipate energy

Zero moment about the pivot:

f1 L1 cos   f 2 L2 cos 

For small  f1 L1  f 2 L2

f1 is the input force then f1 L1

If f2  The output force will be greater than input if
L2
L1  L2
 Mechanical Transformers
• Ideal gear train: Increase/decrease the angular velocity/torque (no friction/inertia)

r2 n2
  N = “gear ratio”
r1 n1
(equally spaced teeth)

Vmesh  r11  r22 1 r2

 N Gear ratio
 2 r1

input power = output power:

T1  2
T11  T2 2  Therefore, “speed reducer” (as in diagram)
T2 1 has larger torque output, T2 > T1
 2.3 Translational Mechanical Systems:
Two-Step Process

• Mathematical models of translational mechanical systems can be derived by a

simple two-step process:
– Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) with all forces on each inertia element (remember to
apply Newton’s 3rd law of equal and opposite forces)
– Apply Newton’s 2nd law to each inertia element (watch signs!)

 F  mx Translational system

• Each inertia element ( m ) will result in a 2nd-order ODE because acceleration is the 2nd
derivative of position
 Modeling Mechanical Systems
Example 2.1
• A high-speed solenoid actuator-valve system is shown below; derive the mathematical model of
the mechanical system.
– Displacement is positive to the right, measured from seated position
– The electromagnetic force (Fem) pulls the armature toward the center of the coil and closes the air gap
– The return spring is undeflected when the armature-valve is seated
 Solenoid Actuator-Valve Example (2)
• A mechanical model of the solenoid system is below

Position of
armature-valve
mass

External
force app. to
m

– The armature + spool valve mass is lumped into m

– The return spring is modeled by ideal spring k

– The friction due to hydraulic fluid is modeled by ideal damper with viscous friction b
 Solenoid Actuator-Valve Example
• Free-body diagram of the mechanical model:

Free-body diagram

– It may help to imagine a positive displacement (x > 0) which in turn compresses the spring and hence
spring force
Summing acts(positive
forces to the leftto the right) on the FBD results in

+  F  kx  bx  F em  mx

Re-arranging, we get the mathematical model of the solenoid system:
1 inertia element  2nd-order model
(i.e., linear 2nd-order ODE)
mx  bx  kx  Fem In general: One 2nd-order ODE) for each
inertia element.
 Vertical Translational Systems
Example 2.2
• Derive the mathematical model of the mechanical system.
– Displacement is positive downward, measured from the undeflected position of the spring

Free-body diagram

• Using the free-body diagram (above and right) and summing forces we obtain
the mathematical model
   F   kx  bx  mg  mx mx  bx  kx  mg Model
nd
(2 -order ODE)
 Vertical Translational Systems
Example 2.2 (without mg term)
• First, assume that the mechanical system is in static equilibrium where
x  x  0
0 0
mx  bx  kx  mg  kx = mg

• Define the “static deflection” d = mg/k

• Define new position variable z relative to the static (equilibrium) position: x = d +
z (when z = 0, x = d )
0 0
Note that x  d  z and x  d  z

Model
mz  bz  k d  z   mg  mz  bz  kz  0 (2nd-order ODE)
 Example 2.3

Mechanical
model

If (z1-zo) is +ve, spring If (z1-z2) is +ve, spring in

Force direction in tension and applying compression and
force downward applying force downward
 Example 2.3

M 1:    F  k 2 ( z1  z2 )  b2 ( z1  z 2 ) k1 ( z1  zo )  b1 ( z1  z o )  m1 z1

M 2 :    F  k 2 ( z1  z2 )  b2 ( z1  z 2 )  m2 z2 k2 ( z1  z2 ) b2 ( z1  z 2 )

Finally, with separated dynamic parameters and input parameter, we have

m1z1  b1 z1  k1 z1  k2 ( z1  z2 )  b2 ( z1  z 2 )  k1 z o  b1 z o

m2 z2  b2 ( z1  z 2 )  k2 ( z1  z2 )  0
k1 ( z1  zo ) b1 ( z1  z o )

Two inertia elements, accordingly, two 2nd order ODEs

Both equation are coupled and linear.
Because: linear stiffness and damper element. Free body diagram
+ve, so spring in
tension and applying
force downward
 Mechanical Systems with Nonlinearities
Example 2.4
• Solenoid-valve model with
Coulomb (dry) friction:

• Coulomb or dry friction has

magnitude Fdry = kN, where
 k is the coefficient of kinetic
 friction; N = normal force

Dry friction force always opposes motion: Fdry sgn( x )

sgn = signum or sign function (+1 or -1)

 Mechanical Systems with Nonlinearities
Example 2.4
• Free-body diagram with dry friction force included

• Summing all forces (positive is to the right)

   F  Fem  kx  bx  Fdry sgn( x )  mx

Re-arranging, we
obtain the model: mx  bx  Fdry sgn( x )  kx  Fem
 Mechanical Systems with Nonlinearities
Example 2.5

F  F em  FC  kx  FPL  bx  Fdry sgn( x )  mx

Re-arranging, we obtain the model:

mx  bx  Fdry sgn( x )  kx  Fem  FC  FPL

Static equilibrium at seated position.

x  x  x  0

Fc will be zero as x>0

Fem  FC  FPL  0
 FPL  Fem If Fem  FPL
FC  FPL  Fem FC  
 0 If Fem  FPL
 2.4 Rotational Mechanical Systems:
Two-Step Process

• Mathematical models of rotational mechanical systems can be derived by a

simple two-step process:
– Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) with all torques on each moment of inertia (remember to
apply Newton’s 3rd law of equal and opposite torques)
– Apply Newton’s 2nd law to each inertia element (watch signs!)

 T  J Rotational system

• Each inertia element ( J ) will result in a 2nd-order ODE because acceleration is

the 2nd derivative of position
 Dual-Disk Mechanical System
Example 2.9

Free-body
diagram
Positive rotation
is clockwise

The bearing friction and the fluid friction lumped into a single rotational friction coefficient b.
That frictional torque will oppose the motion
Summing torques on disk (positive is clockwise):

Mathematical model of disk

system:
one 2nd-order ODEs
 Dual-Disk Mechanical System
Example 2.9

• Toroidal-segment piston (disk J1 ) is matched with a toroidal-segment cylinder (disk J2 ); both rotate
about a common axis

• Positive angular displacements are measured clockwise from their untwisted (equilibrium) positions

• A diesel engine provides external torques Tin(t) that appear as equal-and-opposite pairs on both
disks
 Dual-Disk Mechanical System
Example 2.9 (2)

Free-body diagram
Positive rotation is clockwise
• Summing torques on each disk (positive is clockwise): Note equal-and-opposite torques

J 11  b1  k 1   2   Tin (t ) Mathematical model of dual-

disk system:
J 22  b2  k  2  1   Tin (t ) Two 2nd-order ODEs
 Chapter 2: Summary
• We introduced a systematic approach for developing the mathematical model of
mechanical systems

• First, we presented the physical laws for inertia, stiffness, and energy-dissipation
elements

• Next, we began the modeling process by drawing all forces (or torques) on a free-
body diagram for each inertia element
– Newton’s third law is used to draw the equal-and-opposite reaction forces that exist
between inertia elements
– The summation of all forces in the assumed positive direction is equated to the product of
mass and acceleration (Newton’s second law, F = ma )
– Each inertia element in a mechanical system will require a second-order ODE because
acceleration is the second time-derivative of position