CHAPTER TWO

..
THE GEOLOGY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
 Geology is an Earth science that studies the evolution of the earth,
the materials of which it is made of, and the processes acting upon
them.
 Much of Geology is concerned with events that took place in the
remote past
 geological understanding must, therefore, be obtained by inferences
and clues
 These clues are based on
• rocks and landforms
• characteristics of seismic waves
• geochemistry (analysis of the detailed composition of rocks
which can give clues as to their origin)
• geochronology (methods for finding the ages of rocks, usually
from the radioactive elements they contain).
….cont

• The earth’s continents were once bunched up together in to a single

huge continent called Pangaea.

• The large super continent was then split into Gondwanaland where
Africa is a part and Laurasia; and later into smaller fragments over the
last million years. These then drifted apart to form the present
arrangement of continents.

• Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift- stating the

geographic impermanency of continents formed from the Pangaea.

Wegener indicate the following evidences of the theory

 ….cont
• Structural- Fit of the continents: The opposing coastlines of
continents often fit together.
• Geological - Match of mountain belts, rock types: If the continents
are reassembled as Pangaea, mountains in West Africa, North
America, Greenland, and Western Europe match up.
• Palaeontological- Distribution of fossils: The distribution of plants
and animal fossils on separate continents forms definite linked
patterns if the continents are reassembled.
• Paleo climatic- : rocks formed 200 million years ago in India,
Australia, South America, and southern Africa all exhibited
evidence of continental glaciations.
 The Geologic Processes: Endogenic and Exogenic Forces
 Geology studies of how Earth's materials, structures, processes and
organisms have changed over time.
These processes are divided into two major groups: internal and
external processes.
• The internal processes (endogenic) include volcanic activity and all the
tectonic processes (folding, faulting, orogenesis (mountain building),
and epeirogenesis (slow rising and sinking of the landmass).
• These processes result in building of structural and volcanic features
like plateaus, rift valleys, Block Mountains, volcanic mountains, etc.
• The external (exogenic) processes are geomorphic processes.
• They include weathering, mass transfer, erosion and deposition.
• They act upon the volcanic and structural landforms by modifying,
roughening and lowering them down.
 Cont….
• The landmass of Ethiopia, as elsewhere, is the result of the combined effect
of endogenic and exogenic processes.
• 2.3. The Geological Time Scale and Age Dating Techniques
• The Earth is believed to have been formed approximately 4.6 billion years
ago and the earliest forms of life were thought to have originated
approximately 3.5 billion years ago.
• Geological time is difficult to measure precisely.
• The geological time scale measures time on a scale involving four main
units:
• An epoch is the smallest unit of time on the scale and encompasses a period
of millions of years.
• Chronologically, epochs are clumped together into larger units called
periods.
• Periods are combined to make subdivisions called Eras.
• An eon is the largest period of geological time.
• 2. Age Dating Techniques
• There are two techniques of knowing the age of rocks: Relative and
absolute age dating.
• Relative dating
• geological evidence to assign comparative ages of fossils.
• use the layers of rock formation and sequences of depositions - "What
is on top of the older rocks?“
• Absolute Dating- Also known as Radiometric techniques.
• Uses radioactive elements such as uranium (U) and thorium (Th) decay
naturally to form different elements or isotopes of the same element. Every
radioactive element has its own half-life.
• Two of the major techniques include:
• Carbon-14 Technique: Upon the organism’s death, carbon-14 begins to
disintegrate at a known rate, and no further replacement of carbon from
atmospheric carbon dioxide can take place.
• Carbon-14 has half-life of 5730 years.
• Potassium-Argon Technique: The decay is widely used for dating rocks.
Geologists are able to date entire rock samples in this way, because
potassium-40 is abundant in micas, feldspars, and hornblendes.
• 2.4. Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms of
Ethiopia and the Horn
• 2.4.1. The Precambrian Era Geologic Processes (4.5 billion -
600 million years ago)
• covers 5/6th of the Earth’s history.
• Due to its remoteness in time and the absence of well-
preserved fossils, our knowledge of the events is limited.
• The major geologic event of this Era was Orogenesis-that
resulted in intense folding
• In addition, the Precambrian era was known for extensive
denudation responsible fro peneplanation.
• The penepnained land was covered with younger rock
formation later in the Mesozoic and cenezoic eras.
• The stratigraphy of most part of Ethiopia is the result of
sequences of both the endogenous and exogenous activities
in the long geological time scale.
 …Cont
• These sequences of geological processes and activities have
resulting landforms and structures.
• As such, the Precambrian rocks are overlaid by later rock
formations of different ages.
• Despite the Precambrian rocks are overlaid by sequences of rock
formation, they are fond exposed in the following areas:
• In the northern part: Western lowlands, parts of northern and
central Tigray.
• In the western Part: Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel and
Asossa), western Gojjam, western Wellega, Illuababora, and Abay
gorge.
• In the southern Part: Guji, southern Omo, and parts of southern
Bale and Borena.
• In the eastern part: Eastern Hararghe.
2.4.2. The Paleozoic Era Geologic Processes (600million - 225 million years
ago)
• The major geological process of this Era was denudation.

• The gigantic mountains that were formed by the Precambrian

orogeny were subjected to intense and prolonged denudation.

• At the end, the once gigantic mountain ranges were reduced to a

“peneplained” surface.

• Undulating plain with some interspersed residual features

(inselbergs) here were was formed.

• Because of the limited deposition within Ethiopia, rocks belonging

to this Era are rare in the country
2.4.3. The Mesozoic Era Geologic Processes (225-70 million years ago)
• It was an Era of alternate slow sinking and rising (epeirogenesis) of the
landmass.
• This process affected the whole present-day Horn of Africa and
Arabian landmass.
• At the same time the land was tilted eastward and therefore lower in
the southeast and higher in the northwest.
• Following the slow sink about 225 million years ago, there was
transgression of sea starting from Somalia and Ogaden and slowly
spreading northwestward, in the late Triassic period
• . This was began in late Triassic period and continued up to Jurassic
period. As the shallow sea spread towards the land, sands were
deposited over the peneplained Precambrian rock surface.
…cont

• Moreover, the deposits were also made of remains of plants and animals.
• Hence, Mesozoic rocks are considered to have the greatest potential for oil and gas
deposits.
• Gradually, compression by the overlying rocks and by cementing minerals, the sands
and lime were compacted to form sandstone and limestone layers respectively.
• These are known as the Adigrat sand stone and Hintalo limestone layers.
• They are named after place names in Tigray where they might have been first identified.

• Later, the Horn of Africa and Ethiopia, experienced slow uplifting and consequently the
regression of the sea began in the late Jurassic and continue throughout the cretaceous
period.
• As the result of the regression of the sea, the uppermost layer is
known as the Upper sandstone was formed.
• In general,by the end of the Mesozoic Era, when the land emerged
out of the sea, three major sedimentary formations were laid and
formed upon the Precambrian rock surface.
• These were the Adigrat or lower sandstone, Hintalo limestone and
Upper Sandstone.
• Due to the tilting of the landmass during the transgression and
regression of the sea, and due to the direction of the invading and
retreating sea, the age and thickness of the Sandstone layers vary in a
Southeast - Northwest direction.
• As such,the Adigrat sandstone is older and thicker in the southeast
and progressively decreases in age and thickness northwestward.
• The Upper sandstone, on the other hand, is thicker and younger
(Upper Cretaceous) in the Southeast, while in the Northwest it is older
and thinner.
…cont

• The transgressing sea and Mesozoic sediments nearly covered the

whole of Ethiopia.

• The northwestern limit was as far as central Tigray, and western

slopes of Western highlands.

• In most parts of Ethiopia, the Mesozoic rocks are overlaid by the

Cenozoic rocks and recent deposits.

• . As surface rocks, these old marine sediments are extensively found

in the Southeast lowlands.

• Other exposures include central Tigray, and along the gorges of Abay
and Wabishebelle rivers
Fig. the Geological map of Ethiopia
 Cont..
• 2.4.4. The Cenozoic Era Geologic Processes (70million years ago - Present)
• The Cenozoic Era is the most recent of the geologic Eras.
• The tectonic and volcanic activities that took place in this Era have
an important effect in the making of the present-day landmass of
Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa.

• The land was subjected to two major geologic events and other
geologic processes of lesser magnitude but still important.

• These geologic activities are:

1. Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and outpouring of

huge quantity of lava.
2. Formation of the Rift Valley.
3. Quaternary volcanism and deposition.
 Cont..
1. Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and outpouring of lava flood
• The uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass is a continuation of the
slow rise that began in the Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.
• This huge uplift continued to the Paleocene and Oligocene epoch of
the Tertiary period.
• Where the uplifting was of greater magnitude, the land was pushed up
to a maximum height of 2,000 meters above sea level.
• This occurred during the Eocene epoch.
• This uplifting was of an epeirogenic character.
• The greatest uplift was in central Ethiopia.
• This immense tectonic force also fractured the crust at many places
and huge quantity of lava came out through these fractures.
• The out pouring of this flood of basalt spread widely and extensively and
covered a large part of the Mesozoic sedimentary layer to form the Ethiopian
plateau surface and also the floor of the present-day Rift Valley.
 …cont
• The mass of lava was so immense, that it formed a thick layer of
volcanic rocks on the plateau, which mounted to more than
1,000 meters above sea level in the north Central Highlands.
• Where the lava comes out through vents, huge volcanic rocks
were piled up to form many and huge Volcanic Mountains’
towering the flat basaltic plateau.
• This volcanic material is known as Trappean lava or Trap Series
lava.
• Where it is not dissected by erosion, the Ethiopian plateau had
flat and nearly horizontal surface.
• This is an expression of the peneplaned Precambrian surfaces,
the smothering effect of the Mesozoic deposition, and the
spreading of the Trap series lava over the Mesozoic sediments.
2. The Formation of the Rift Valley
•The formation of the Rift Valley is said to be related with the theory of plate
tectonics.
 …..cont
• According to the theory, the Rift Valley may be lying on the Earth’s
crust below which lateral movement of the crust in opposite
directions producing tensional forces( in the divergent plate
boundaries) that caused parallel fractures or faults on the sides of
the up-arched swell.
• As the tension widened the fractures, the central part of the
landmass collapsed to form an extensive structural depression
known as the Rift Valley
 …cont
• The major faulting movement probably began in the late Oligocene
and Miocene Epochs of the Cenozoic Era.
• This rifted the Red Sea trough, which began to be flooded from the
north.
• But the major rifting, affecting the whole African Rift System,
including that of Ethiopia and the Gulf of Aden took place in the
Miocene Epoch.
• Rifting and faulting, however, continued all the time throughout the
Pliocene and even the Pleistocene Epochs.
• The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden were connected as a result of the rifting and
faulting of the land bridge that separated them. Concurrently (Pliocene), the
Afar depression (including the Gulf of Zula) was down-faulted allowing the Red
Sea water to penetrate far inside.
…cont
• Reversed tilting and volcanic activity, later (Pleistocene) blocked the
connection and isolated the extension of the sea, allowing much of
the water to evaporate.
• As a result, thick saline materials accumulated.
• During the same period, the area between the Danakil Depression
and the Red Sea was uplifted to form the Afar Block Mountains.
• The Ethiopian Rift Valley is part of the Great East African Rift system
that extends from Palestine-Jordan in the north to Malawi-
Mozambique in the south, for a distance of about 7,200 kilometers.
Of these, 5,600 kilometers is in Africa, and 1,700 kilometers in Eritrea
and Ethiopia.
• On land, the widest part of the Rift Valley is the Afar Triangle (200-
300 km).
• The Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the East African System meet and
form the triangular depression of the Afar where the Kobar Sink lies
about 125 meters below sea level.
….cont
• The formation of the Gulf of Aden and the separation of the Arabian
Peninsula from the Horn of Africa also took place during the Tertiary
period.
• The Rift Valley region of Ethiopian is the most unstable part of the
country.
• There are numerous hot springs, fumorales, active volcanoes,
geysers, and frequent earthquakes.
• The formation of the Rift Valley has the following structural
(physiographic) effects:
• It divides the Ethiopian Plateau into two.
• It separates the Arabian landmass from African
landmass.
• It causes the formation of the Dead Sea, Red Sea and
the Gulf of Aden troughs.
• It creates basins and fault depressions on which the
Rift Valley lakes are formed.
 …cont
• Faulting and graben formation are not only limited to the Rift Valley.
For example, similar tectonics activities have occurred in the Lake
Tana Basin.
• However, the formation of Lake Tana had been accentuated by
volcanic activity so that lava flow in the southeast had dammed part
of the rim to deepen the basin.
• Faulting in other places had a structural control along some part of
the river courses.
3. Quaternary Volcanic Eruptions and Depositions
• They are recent volcanic activities that took place after the
formation of the Rift Valley.
• This occurred in the Pliocene-Pleistocene Epochs. This is a
continuation of the tectonic and volcanic processes that earlier
affected the Rift Valley formation.
…cont
• It occurred in the form of renewed rifting/faulting and more
volcanism.
• This activity was generally limited to the floor of the Rift
Valley and the region south of Lake Tana, where the lava
covers an area of more than 3,000km2.
• Aden volcanics and recent faulting are more extensively
developed in the Afar region.
• The area is shattered by numerous faults and subjected to
extensive scoriaceous basalt eruptions.
• Because of their recent occurrence, the Aden volcanics have
relatively well-preserved and visible morphological features.
• The basic volcanic features of the Aden series include the
following:
 …cont
• Numerous and freshly preserved volcanic cones, many of which
have explosive craters.
• Some of these are active Dubi, Erta Ale, Afrera [Link] these, Erta
Ale is the most active volcano in Ethiopia.
• Volcanic hills and mountains, some of which are semi-dormant
(Fantale, Boseti-Gouda near Adama, Aletu north of Lake Ziway,
Chebbi north of Lake Hawassa etc.).
• Extensive lava fields and lava sheets some of which are very
recent.
• Lava ridges.
• Thermal springs, fumaroles etc.
• Quaternary deposits
• During the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic Era, the Earth experienced a
marked climatic change, where warmer and dry periods were alternating with
cooler and wet periods..
…cont
• This was the time of the last ‘’Ice Age’’ in the middle and
high latitude areas and the time of the ‘‘Pluvial Rains’’ in
Africa.
• The heavy Pluvial Rains eroded the Ethiopian plateau and
the eroded materials were deposited in the Rift Valley lakes.
• Lake and marshy areas became numerous and deep. Many
were enlarged and covered much area and even merged
together.
• For example, Ziway-Langano-Shalla; Hawasa-Shallo; Chamo-
Abaya; and Lake Abe and the nearby smaller lakes and
marsh basins formed huge lakes.
• After the ‘‘Pluvial Rains’’, the Earth’s climate became
warmer and drier.
• Thus, it increased the rate of evaporation that diminished
the sizes of the lakes.
•.
 …cont
• Today, there are lacustrine deposits of continental origin around many of the
Ethiopian lakes, river valleys and lowlands.
• According to the place and manner of deposition and depositing agents these
deposits are divided as follow.
• Lacustrine deposits: Deposits on former lakebeds, and
swampy depressions.
• Fluvial deposits: Deposits on the banks of rivers, flood plains
both in plateau, foothills etc.
• Glacio-fluvial deposits and erosional features: These are
occurred on high mountains, such as Bale and Kaka
Mountains.
• Aeolian deposits: Are windblown deposits.
• Coastal and marine deposits: Deposits on sea invaded and
sea-covered places.
 …cont
• The quaternary deposits are mainly found in the Rift Valley (Afar
and Lakes Region), Baro lowlands, southern Borena, and parts of
northwestern low lands. Generally, the Cenozoic rocks cover 50%
of the land mass of the country.

• These include Highland Tertiary volcanics (basalts), Tertiary as

well as Quaternary volcanics, and sediments of the rift valley.