UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY (UMaT),
TARKWA
FACULTY OF MINERAL RESOURCES TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING
APPLIED GEOPHYSICS
PE 276
LECTURER: J. SEIDU
JANUARY, 2020
Organisational Aspects
Geological Engineering Department
Email: jseidu@[Link]
Office hours: Tuesdays and Wednesday 12-16hrs
Assessment
Class attendance (10 marks)
Continues Assessment: Assignments+ Exercise + Mini Projects (30 marks)
End of semester exams (60 marks)
Others
NB: Marks will be allocated for class participation
OUTLINE
Introduction
Seismic methods
The Electrical Resistivity Methods
Gravitational Method
Magnetic Methods
THE ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
• The electrical resistivity method involves the measurement of
the apparent resistivity of soils and rock as a function of depth
or position.
• In the electrical resistivity method, current is supplied by
conduction to the ground through two electrodes and the
potential is measured by an additional pair of electrodes placed
in-between the current electrodes.
• For its operation this method depends on the fact that any subsurface
variation in conductivity alters the form of the current flow within the earth
and thus affects the distribution of electrical potential.
• The degree to which the potential at the surface is affected
depends on the size, shape, location and electrical resistivity of
the subsurface masses.
• It is therefore possible to obtain information about subsurface distribution
of these bodies from potential measurements made at the surface.
THE ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
• In most rock materials, the porosity and the chemical content of the water
filling the pore spaces is more important in governing resistivity than the
conductivity of the mineral grains of which the rock itself is composed.
• The salinity of the water in the pores is probably the most critical factor
determining the resistivity.
THE ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
• It will be realised therefore that the resistivities of formations
range widely, not only from formation to formation but even
within a particular deposit. This being particularly true of near surface
unconsolidated materials.
Clay > shale > sand > sandstone > limestone > crystalline rocks
(igneous and metamorphic)
Applications
• Groundwater detection
• Mineral identification
• Waste exploration
• Oil identification
• The most widespread use of electrical methods is made in oil exploration in the process
of electrical methods of logging.
• This is a modified resistivity method and involves running a continuous resistivity
record in encased wells with an electrode assembly of fixed spacing.
Resistivities of rocks and minerals
• For a quantitative treatment, consider a homogeneous layer of
length (L), and resistance (R), through which a current (I) is
flowing. The potential difference across the ends of the
resistance is given by Ohms law.
V = R×I
RA
By definition, resistivity (ρ) is given as:
L
The SI unit of resistivity is the ohm-metre (ohmm)
Resistivities of rocks and minerals
The approximate range of resistivity values of common rock types.
Measurement of Resistivity
• In the most commonly used four electrode system, we have two outer current
electrodes C1C2 and two inner potential electrodes P1P2.
• Current goes from C1 into the ground and comes out of C2. If the distances of
the potential electrodes from the current electrode are as shown, r1, r2, R1,
R2 then the potentials at P1 and P2 are;
I 1 1 I 1 1
Vp1 = Vp2 =
2 r1 r2 2 R1 R 2
The potential difference between P1 and P2 V = Vp1 – Vp2
I 1 1 1 1 2V 1
a
V = I 1 1 1 1
2 1r r2 R1 R 2
r
1 r2 R1 R 2
Measurement of Resistivity
Conventional Four Electrode System
Wenner Configuration
The Wenner configurationis the simpler in that current and potential electrodes are
maintained at an equal spacing a
2aI
V
Measurement of Resistivity
Conventional Four Electrode System
Schlumberger Configuration
In the Schlumberger configuration, inner potential electrodes have a spacing 2l which is a
small proportion of that of the outer, current electrodes (2L)
( L2 x 2 ) 2 V
a
2l ( L2 x 2 ) I
where x is the distance of the observation point (the point midway between the potential probes)
from the centre of the line C1C2. When used symmetrically, x=0 so;
L2 V
a
2l I
MEASUREMENT WITH ELECTRODE SYSTEMS
• The aim of the resistivity survey is to delineate resistivity boundaries (both
horizontal and vertical) in a heterogeneous ground.
• Vertical electrical sounding (VES)
• Horizontal electrical profiling (HEP)
Vertical electrical sounding (VES)
• When the ground consists of a number of more or less
horizontal layers, knowledge of the vertical variation in
resistivity is required.
• Electric drilling is done to deduce the variation in resistivity
with depth below a given point on the ground surface.
• The procedure is based on the fact that the current penetrates
continuously deeper with increasing separation of the current
electrodes.
VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING (VES)
Flow of electrical current through the earth
Two and three layer curves for the variation in apparent resistivity as a function
of the current electrode separation for the symmetrical Schlumberger electrical
sounding.
VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING (VES)
• In VES with the Wenner configuration, the array spacing, a, is
increased by steps keeping the mid-point of the configuration
fixed. (a=2,6,18,54……etc).
• The present trend in VES favours the Schlumberger
configuration.
• Since only two electrodes are moved it is much more convenient to use the
latter for field routine than the Wenner configuration.
• As the potential electrodes remain fixed the effect of near
surface inhomogeneities in their vicinity (due to soil conduction,
weathering etc) is constant for all observations.
VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING (VES)
Application of Vertical Electrical Sounding
HORIZONTAL ELECTRICAL PROFILING (HEP)
• If the layers or boundaries are vertical, rather than horizontal planes,
electric profiling is adopted.
• The object of electric profiling is to detect lateral variations in the
resistivity of the ground.
• In the Schlumberger method of profiling, the current electrodes
remain fixed at a relatively large distance eg. few 100 m and the
potential electrodes with small constant separation P1P2 are moved
between C1C2.
• At the end of the profile line the Schlumberger setup is transferred to
the adjacent line and so on, until the area to be investigated is
covered.
• The profile lines will usually be at right angles to the strike of the structures (eg. faults
and dykes) to be mapped so that we may expect to find somewhat similar results from
profile to profile.
HORIZONTAL ELECTRICAL PROFILING (HEP)
• In the Wenner procedure of profiling, the four electrode
configuration with a definite array spacing, a, is moved as a
whole in suitable steps, say, 10-20m along a line measurement.
• The choice of array spacing, a, would primarily depend on the
depth of the anomalous resistivity features to be mapped.
• The Wenner curve differs in that it has four cusps, the cusps may
however not be observed in practice unless the measurements
are taken at very close intervals.
• Steep gradients in the resistivity curve are characteristic markers
of structures with near-vertical boundaries such as faults, dykes
and veins.
• For all practical purposes, a boundary that is inclined as much as
300 from the vertical would essentially yield the same results.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY IMAGING (ERI)
• Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI) is a geophysical method that
provides 2D or 3D resistivity image of the subsurface. ERI can
provide information about distinct subsurface boundaries and
conditions that other geophysical methods cannot.
• ERI utilizes an automatic multi-electrode switching system, which
passes an electrical current along multiple paths at various depths
and measures the resulting associated voltages between electrodes.
• Apparent resistivity measurements are recorded from all possible
combinations between two electrodes.
• Processing of the data using resistivity inversion software provides a
subsurface model with a more unique or quantitative interpretation of the
data than possible in the past.
• New advances in ERI methods have included three-dimensional
surveys and cross-borehole surveys which make this technique even
more successful for subsurface characterization.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY IMAGING (ERI)
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY IMAGING (ERI)
DATA ACQUISITION
• Electrical Resistivity Tomography data acquisition system acquires a series of voltage
and current measurements from surface (and under water) electrode arrays.
• The extensive data resulting from such measurements are processed to produce
electrical resistivity tomographs using state-of-the-art inversion algorithms.
• These tomographs show spatial variations in electrical resistivity. The tomographs
show the location and shape of electrical resistivity zones, which can be used as a
guide for focusing more detailed characterization and monitoring evaluations.
• The modern equipments are capable of taking measurements both of Electrical
Resistivity and Induced Polarization. These can complete 1D, 2D and 3D data
acquisition more accurately, faster, and stores data in its built in memory.
• Data acquisition using various electrode configurations is possible in short time. The
advent of efficient softwares can handle the large amount of data processing and
analysis in short time.
• The development in equipment and data analysis software made ERT a very popular,
important tool. It is non-invasive geophysical techniques, less costly, fast and more
environmentally friendly etc.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY IMAGING (ERI)
