Chapter 4
Memory and Forgetting
Objectives of this Chapter
• On completing this chapter the students will be able to:
- define memory in their words
- identify the stages of memory
- explain the processes at each stage of memory
- list down factors affecting memory
- identify the methods of saving memory and explain how to
save memory
- define forgetting
- enumerate and describe the causes of forgetting
- explain the differences between memory and forgetting.
Introduction
• In chapter 4, we have seen what learning is
and major learning theories about how
learning occurs in human mind.
• In this chapter we consider factors that are
strongly associated with learning.
• These are memory and forgetting
• Memory and forgetting are the two mental
processes always occurring after learning a new
piece of information.
• The major points focused in analyzing these two
factors in this part of this material include the:
-meanings of the two terms,
-stages of memory,
-factors affecting memory, and
-factors that cause forgetting.
Memory: Information Processing Model
Definition
• Memory refers to the process of:
- acquiring a new information (knowledge),
- short retention in short term store,
- rehearsing it by different ways,
- retaining it over long period of time and,
- retrieving the retained information in the form of
recollection
Stages of Memory
• A number of models of memory have been
proposed by different people.
• In this discussion, the model developed by
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) is adopted
• The Sensory Register
• Sensory register is associated with the sensory
channels like vision, hearing touch etc.
• In this compartment information can be held
for a very brief time (several seconds at most)
• Most of the information in the sensory
register is lost (decayed from the register).
• However, we pay attention to some of the
information,
• when we do this the attended to information
is passed on to the short-term store for
further processing.
• Thus, the transfer of information from the
sensory register to short term store depends
on attention
• The Short Term Store
• This is a separate store for short-term memory,
• It holds information received from sensory register for up to 30
seconds (on average).
• Its property:
- This store has a very limited storage capacity
- It also stores only limited number of information
items.
- As the capacity of this memory stage is so small, much
information is lost because it is displaced by newly incoming
items of information.
• Before it is lost, however, some of the information can be retrieved
and used.
• But it is possible to increase the storage capacity by the process
known as chunking.
• Its contents:
- The information items in the short term store is usually said to
consist of:
- speech sound,
- visual image, and
- words;
But recently it was found that some meaningful sentences can also be
stored.
Processes in the short-term store
• We rapidly scan through the store when we are searching
for an item of information in the short- term store.
• We examine everything in the store when we try to
retrieve an item from the store and hence it (scanning) is
said to be exhaustive.
• The scanning does not stop when the searched for item is
located.
• Finally some of the information is passed along to what is
known as rehearsal buffer for further process
• Rehearsal Buffer
• Rehearsal buffer is a special part of the short
term store where rehearse takes place.
• Rehearsal refers to the process of focusing
attention on an item of information
Types of Rehearsal
• Maintenance Rehearsal: Maintenance
Rehearsal is a kind of rehearsal in which the
information items in the short term store are
simply repeated over and over
• Elaborative Rehearsal: Elaborative Rehearsal
is the one that involves giving information in
the rehearsal buffer organization and
meanings as it is rehearsed.
• This kind of rehearsal seems to be more
effective.
• Both type of rehearsal lead to the transfer of
information to the long term store.
• N.B. - The amount of rehearsal given to items in
the buffer is important in the transfer of
information from short term to long term store.
- the more items are rehearsed, the more
likely it is to become part of the long term store.
The Long Term Store
• This is a store where processed information items
are permanently stored
• I Properties of Long Term Store
• In contrast to short-term store, the long term store:
- has the capacity to store a huge amount of
information and has no known limit.
- stores the information items for a long period of
time (days, months, years, or a life time).
- has no true forgetting.
• That is, once stored in the long term store no
information is lost from it apart from mis-
displacement of the information the situation
in which we face difficulty in remembering a
piece of information.
Contents of Long-term Store
• The information items in the long-term store
are mostly about the meaning of:
- words, - ideas,
- sentences, - concepts, and
- life experiences we have had (episodes).
Process in the Long-term Store
A. Encoding and Storage of Information
• Encoding refers to processing incoming
information so that it can be readily stored.
• The process of encoding and storage involves
the following processes.
Organizing or Arranging
• In this process the incoming information is
organized or arranged so that it:
-fits into existing memory categories
-is grouped in some logical manner or
arranged in some other way that makes sense.
• Such organization can be inherent in the
material itself or given to it by learner.
Forming Images
• In this process, the incoming information item
(material) is put in certain form that helps the learner
remember the learned material easily.
Encoding Retrieval Cue (reminder)
• In this case the information that is to be remembered
is associated (encoded) with retrieval cue (reminder)
so that this cue helps the learner remember the
material (information) to be remembered.
B. Organization of Information
• The information in the long-term memory is:
- organized,
- categorized, and
- classified in the following way.
• Procedural memory
• This involves remembering principle, rule, and steps
to be followed to do something.
• Semantic memory
• This consists of our knowledge of:
- what words mean
- how they are related to one another and
- the rules for using them in thinking and
communication.
• Episodic memory
• Episodic memory consists of memories of
specific things that have happened to us at
particular time and place – our life
experiences
• C. Retrieval from Long- term memory
• Retrieval from Long- term memory is a two-
stag process.
• In the first stage, a “reminder” or retrieval cue
triggers the generation of a search through
the categories of long-term memory.
• The second stage is the recognition of the
searched for item of information when it is
contacted
Factors Affecting Memory
Meaning Level of the Material
• The material with clearer meaning is easily encoded and
better retained than which is less meaningful.
Effect of Organization
• A well-organized material (when the learners read, hear,
or observe it) is better retained.
• In this case, the organization is said to be objective
organization.
The Role of Constructive and Reconstructive
Processes
A. Constructive process:
• is the process of encoding in a shortened and
modified form.
• In this process, if there is no considerable care,
there is a possibility of committing error in
retaining the original material
B. Reconstructive Process:
• I a modification of information during
retrieval.
• Since the only main points and outlines of the
material are stored, it is likely that the
individual will add plausible guesses and
retrieve little bit modified material.
• The Role of Retrieval Cues
• Retrieval cues are the reminders of information
stored in LTM.
• Effective memory is achieved when a reminder
or a retrieval cue is attached together with the
to be remembered material (information) so
that when the need arises to retrieve/recall the
material, the cue will remind the learner.
• This principle of attaching reminder along with the
material is called Encoding specific principle
• Sometimes the condition under which the to
remembered material is encoded can also be used as
reminder (retrieval cue)
• The devices, which help us remember better or ways of
improving memory are called mnemonic devices.
• One of these devices is Acronyms, which are
subjectively organized initial of terms or sentences to
help us remind of the information to be stored.
• One of the examples is the VIBGYOR, standing for the
seven colors in light spectrum namely, Violet, Indigo,
Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red.
• Another example is the acronym used to remember the
number of days that each month, in the Gregorian
Calendar, contain:
- SNAJ= September, November, April, June
which contain 30 days each.
- FEB= February has 28 days (but each leap
year being 29 days). The others contain 31 days
Transfer of Training
• refers to the carry over of experiences to the
present learning situation.
• It can facilitate or hinder the learning.
• It may be positive or negative.
• Positive Transfer : is when previously learned
material (experience) facilitates the memory of
the newly learned knowledge or skill, by the
virtue of their similarities.
• - E.g. Principles of typing may facilitate the
memory of the principles in computer training,
or riding a bicycle facilitates the learning of
riding a motor cycle.
• Generally information can easily be encoded
when there is a positive transfer of training.
Negative Transfer: Occurs when previously
learned knowledge or skill hinders the memory
of the present knowledge or skill.
• The Effect of Serial Position
• If there are a set of items or a list of words, the items at
the beginning and at the end have the chances of being
retained as compared to the items in the middle.
• This leads to the concept of primacy and recency effect
Primacy effect:
• We remember the items at the beginning better than
those in middle do because these items have the
chance of joining the long term memory.
• Recency effect
• This is almost certainly a result of the ability of
subjects to “read out” items from short memory.
• Therefore, if recall is delayed, and particularly if some
other task is interpolated between presentation of the
item and recall, the recency effect will disappear
(Zekaria).
• It is also possible to change the relation between the
order of recall and the probability of recall by
instructions.
• For example, for the subjects who are given a set
of items and told to recall them as they occurred
to them (i.e. with no special instruction), there is a
tendency to recall more items from the end of the
list i.e., the recency dominate
• But if the subjects knew before hand that they
must recall in the order of presentation, then they
tend to recall more items from the beginning of
the list i.e. the primacy effect dominate.
Methods of Measuring Memory (Retention)
A. Saving Method
• Saving Method is the procedure in which we test
the amount of memory of the material learned
earlier by seeing how many trial or how much
time it takes the subject to relearn the material
at several times after the original learning.
• The amount saved can be given as:
A In terms of trials,
Savings = Tr1-Tr2 x 100 Tr1
• whereas:
• Tr1= Number of trials at the first (original) learning
• Tr2 = Number of trials at the second learning
• B. In terms of time
• Savings = T1 – T2 x 100
T2
• Whereas:
• T1= Time taken to learn the material
originally
• T2 = Time taken to relearn the material
already learned
• Example: It took a rat to learn a maze 30 trials
(40 minutes). The animal was allowed to
relearn the maze and it accomplished it in 15
trials (20 minutes). What is the amount of
memory saved? Given Tr1 = 30 trials, Tr2 = 15
trials,
T1 – 40 minutes, T2 = 20 minutes
• Saving = 30 –15 x100 Savings = 40 –20 x 100
30 40
• = 1500 = 50% 20x100 = 50%
30 40
Recognition Method
• Recognition method is the procedure, in
which we see whether the subjects can pick
out, or recognize, previously learned items
when they are presented with incorrect items.
Recall Method
• This is other way of measuring memory by
having the subjects (people) try to recall what
they have learned.
• N.B. The way memory is measured is one of
many factors on which forgetting depends.
Forgetting
• Forgetting refers the apparent loss of
information that has already been stored in
long term memory.
• According to this definition, the loss of
information from short – term memory, as a
result of poor rehearsal, doesn’t indicate
forgetting because it is lost before transferring
to long term memory.
The causes of Forgetting
• Again the memorization of distorted and
modified information due to construction and
reconstruction does not show forgetting
because we remember what is originally
stored.
Information Decay
• According to Decay Theory:
- memory decays with the simple passage of
time.
-the longer the time interval between learning
information and being tested on it the worse the
memory would be.
• However, this theory was proved inadequate by
various research results.
• One of the evidences was observed from
reminiscence, which is the recovery of
information that could not be recalled on
earlier test, but retained on the later one.
• Interference
• refers to the fact that the learning of new
thing interferes with the memory of things
learned earlier or the prior learning interferes
with the memory of things learned later.
• The former type of interference is called
retroactive, while the later type of
interference is called proactive
• Laboratory experiment results indicate that
recall is better after sleep than after certain
activities of the mind.
• It is found that recall is better even after sleep
with no dream than with dream.
How does interference occur?
• Learning of something worth remembering is due
to association between stimulus and response. -
During learning, S-R bond is established.
• This established bond will not be weakened by the
passage of time.
• Rather many S-R associations interact with each
other during which the bond is unlearned and the
responses are replaced by competing responses.
• Research Results on Retroactive and
Proactive Interference
i. Research design on Retroactive Interference
Group Task 1 Task 2 Measure of
retention of A
[Link]. Learn A Rest Retention of A
[Link] Learn A Learn B Retention of A
• N.B. “A” is critical (independent variable) here
• The difference between the two groups is the
learning of task B (independent variable); this
comes after the learning of A.
• If retroactive interference occurs the control
group would better recall task A than the
experimental group
ii. Retroctive Research Design
Groups Task I Task 2 Measure of retention on
B (C.T)
• Cont. [Link] learn B Retention of B
• Exp gr. Learn A learn B Retention of B
• Here the difference between the two groups is
learning task A, which comes before learning
of task B
• If proactive interference occurs the control
group would better recall B than does the
experimental group
Encoding of Incoming Information
Poor organization of the incoming
information,
• inaccurate image of the information, and
poorly encoded retrieval cue result in
inadequate encoding of information.
• This, in turn, impedes the recall of that specific
information
Organization of the Encoded
Information
• Inadequate categorization of the encoded
information according their similarity leads to
the failure to retention.
• This categorization is also influenced by
effectiveness of encoding retrieval cues along
with the to be remembered information.
Retrieval Problem
• Poor association between retrieval cue and to
be remembered information,
• factor present at the time of attempted
retrieval (e.g. inability of recall it later on),
• emotional factors such as repression in
motivated forgetting, all play roles in retrieval
failure (failure to locate and with draw the
already stored information).
• This, in turn, underlies much forgetting
• In summary:
- interference,
- inadequate encoding,
- poor organization and difficulties with
retrieval lead to failure to remember
result in forgetting.