MILLER/SPOOLMAN

LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT 17TH

Chapter 9
Sustaining Biodiversity:
The Species Approach
 Core Case Study: Polar Bears and
Global Warming
Polar Bears
• 20,000-25,000 in the Arctic
• Most calories in winter from seals on sea ice
• Environmental impact on polar bears
• Less summer sea ice from global warming
• Could be gone from wild by 2100
• 2008: Threatened species list
Polar Bear with Seal Prey

Fig. 9-1, p. 190

 9-1 What Role Do Humans Play in the
Extinction of Species?
• Concept 9-1 Species are becoming extinct 100 to
1,000 times faster than they were before modern
humans arrived on the earth (the background rate),
and by the end of this century, the extinction rate is
expected to be 10,000 times the background rate.
Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes
They Increase Sharply (1)
• Biological extinction
• No species member alive

• Background extinction
• Natural low rate of extinction

• Extinction rate
• Percentage or number of species that go extinct in a
certain time period
Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes
They Increase Sharply (2)
• Mass extinction
• 3-5 events
• 50-95% of species became extinct
• From global changes in environmental conditions:
major climate change, volcanoes, asteroid impacts

• Levels of species extinction

• Local extinction
• Ecological extinction
• Biological extinction
 Some Human Activities Are Causing
Extinctions
Human involvement
• Human activity has disturbed at least half of the
earth’s land surface
• Fills in wetlands
• Converts grasslands and forests to crop fields and
urban areas
• Pollution of land and water
 Extinction Rates Are Rising Rapidly (1)
Extinction Rates
• Current extinction rate is at least 100 times higher
than typical background rate of .0001%

• Will rise to 10,000 times the background rate by the

end of the century
• Rate will rise to 1% per year
• ¼ to ½ of the world’s plant and animal species
 Extinction Rates Are Rising Rapidly (2)
• Conservative estimates of extinction = 0.01-1.0%
• Growth of human population will increase this loss
• Rates are higher where there are more endangered
species
• Tropical forests and coral reefs, wetlands and
estuaries—sites of new species—being destroyed

• Speciation crisis
Endangered and Threatened Species
Are Ecological Smoke Alarms
• Endangered species
• So few members that the species could soon become
extinct
• Threatened species (vulnerable species)
• Still enough members to survive, but numbers
declining -- may soon be endangered
Endangered Natural Capital: Species Threatened with
Premature Extinction

Fig. 9-2, p. 193

Endangered Natural Capital: Species Threatened with
Premature Extinction

Fig. 9-2, p. 193

Characteristic Examples
Low reproductive Blue whale, giant
rate panda, rhinoceros

Specialized Blue whale, giant

niche panda, Everglades
kite
Narrow Elephant seal,
distribution desert pupfish

Feeds at high Bengal tiger, bald

trophic level eagle, grizzly bear
Fixed
Blue whale,
migratory
whooping crane,
patterns
sea turtle
Rare African violet,
some orchids

Snow leopard, tiger,

Commercially elephant, rhinoceros,
valuable rare plants and birds

California condor,
Large territories
grizzly bear, Florida
Stepped Art
panther
Fig. 9-3, p. 194
Plants 70%

34% (37% of freshwater species)

Fishes

Amphibians 30%

Reptiles 28%

Mammals 21%

Birds 12%

Fig. 9-4, p. 194

 Science Focus: Estimating Extinction
Rates
• Three problems with estimating extinction rate
1. Hard to document due to length of time
2. Only 1.9 million species identified
3. Little known about nature and ecological roles of species
identified

• Approaches
1. Study extinction rates over last 10,000 years and then
compare with the fossil record
2. Use species–area relationship
3. Mathematical models
 Case Study: The Passenger Pigeon:
Gone Forever
Passenger Pigeon
• Once one of the world’s most abundant birds
• Audubon: flock took 3 days to fly over
• Passenger pigeon hunted to extinction by 1900
• Habitat loss
• Commercial hunting
• Easy to kill: flew in large flocks and nested in dense
colonies
Passenger Pigeon

Fig. 9-5, p. 194

9-2 Why Should We Care about the
Rising Rate of Species Extinction?
• Concept 9-2 We should prevent the premature
extinction of wild species because of the economic
and ecological services they provide and because
they have a right to exist regardless of their
usefulness to us.
 Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s
Natural Capital (1)
• 4 reasons to prevent extinctions
1. Species provide natural resources and natural
services
• Insects for pollination
• Birds for pest control

2. Most species contribute economic services

• Plants for food, fuel, lumber, medicine
• Ecotourism
 Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s
Natural Capital (2)
3. It will take 5-10 million years to regain species
biodiversity

4. Many people believe species have an intrinsic right

to exist
Natural Capital Degradation: Endangered Orangutans in a
Tropical Forest

Fig. 9-6, p. 195

 Pacific yew Taxus Rosy periwinkle
brevifolia, Pacific Cathranthus
Rauvolfia Northwest roseus,
Rauvolfia sepentina, Ovarian cancer Madagascar
Southeast Asia Hodgkin's
Anxiety, high blood disease, Neem tree
pressure Foxglove lymphocytic Azadirachta
Digitalis purpurea, Cinchona
leukemia indica, India
Europe Digitalis for Cinchona
ledogeriana, South Treatment of
heart failure many diseases,
America Quinine for
malaria treatment insecticide,
spermicides

Fig. 9-7, p. 196

Endangered Hyacinth Macaw is a Source
of Beauty and Pleasure

Fig. 9-8, p. 197

 9-3 How do Humans Accelerate
Species Extinction?
• Concept 9-3 The greatest threats to any species are
(in order) loss or degradation of its habitat, harmful
invasive species, human population growth,
pollution, climate change, and overexploitation.
 Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest
Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO
Threats to biodiversity
• Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation
• Invasive (nonnative) species
• Population and resource use growth
• Pollution
• Climate change
• Overexploitation
 Habitat Fragmentation
• Habitat fragmentation
• Large intact habitat divided by roads, crops, urban
development
• Leaves habitat islands
• Blocks migration routes
• Divides populations
• Inhibits migrations and colonization
• Inhibits finding food

• National parks and nature reserves as habitat islands

 Natural Capital Degradation
Causes of Depletion and Extinction of Wild Species

Underlying Causes
• Population growth
• Rising resource use
• Undervaluing
natural capital
• Poverty

Direct Causes
• Habitat loss • Pollution • Commercial hunting
• Climate change and poaching
• Habitat degradation
and fragmentation • Overfishing • Sale of exotic pets and
decorative plants
• Introduction of
• Predator and pest control
nonnative species

Fig. 9-9, p. 198

Indian Tiger

Range 100 years ago

Range today

Fig. 9-10a, p. 199

Black Rhino

Range in 1700
Range today

Fig. 9-10b, p. 199

African Elephant

Probable range 1600

Range today
Fig. 9-10c, p. 199
Asian or Indian Elephant

Former range
Range today

Fig. 9-10d, p. 199

Indian Black
Tiger Rhino

Range 100 years ago

Range in 1700
Range today
Range today

African Asian or Indian

Elephant Elephant

Former range
Probable range 1600 Range today Stepped Art
Range today
Fig. 9-10, p. 199
 Some Deliberately Introduced Species
Can Disrupt Ecosystems
• Most species introductions are beneficial
• Food
• Shelter
• Medicine
• Aesthetic enjoyment

• Nonnative species may have no natural

• Predators
• Competitors
• Parasites
• Pathogens
 Deliberately Introduced Species

Purple loosestrife European starling African honeybee Nutria Salt cedar

(“Killer bee”) (Tamarisk)

Marine toad (Giant Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild
toad) boar (Feral pig)

Fig. 9-11a, p. 200

 Accidentally Introduced Species

Sea lamprey Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian ruffe Common pigeon
(attached to lake (Rock dove)
trout)

Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-horned Asian tiger Gypsy moth
beetle mosquito larvae

Fig. 9-11b, p. 200

 Deliberately introduced species

Purple European African honeybee Nutria Salt cedar

loosestrife starling (“Killer bee”) (Tamarisk)

Marine toad Water Japanese Hydrilla European wild

(Giant toad) hyacinth beetle boar (Feral pig)
Accidentally introduced species

Sea lamprey Argentina Brown tree Eurasian Common pigeon

(attached to fire ant (Rock dove)
lake trout) snake ruffe

Formosan Zebra Asian long- Asian tiger Gypsy moth Stepped Art
termite mussel horned beetle mosquito larvae Fig. 9-11, p. 200
 Case Study: The Kudzu Vine
Kudzu: Invasive Species:
• Imported from Japan in the 1930s

• “ The vine that ate the South”

• Could there be benefits of kudzu?

• Fiber for making paper
• Kudzu powder reduces desire for alcohol
Kudzu Taking Over an Abandoned
House in Mississippi, U.S.

Fig. 9-12, p. 201

Some Accidentally Introduced Species
Can Also Disrupt Ecosystems
• Argentina fire ant: 1930s
• Reduced populations of native ants
• Painful stings can kill
• Pesticide spraying in 1950s and 1960s worsened
conditions
• 2009: tiny parasitic flies may help control fire ants

• Burmese python
• Florida Everglades
Fight Between a Python and Alligator

Fig. 9-13, p. 202

Prevention Is the Best Way to Reduce
Threats from Invasive Species
Handling invasive species:
• Prevent them from becoming established
• Learn the characteristics of the species
• Set up research programs
• Try to find natural ways to control them
• International treaties
• Public education
What Can You Do? Controlling Invasive Species

Fig. 9-14, p. 203

 Other Causes of Species Extinction

Other cases
• Human population growth
• Overconsumption
• Pollution
• Climate change
• Pesticides
• DDT: Banned in the U.S. in 1972
• Bioaccumulation
• Biomagnification
 DDT in fish-eating
birds (ospreys)
25 ppm

DDT in large
fish (needlefish) 2
ppm

DDT in small fish

(minnows) 0.5
ppm

DDT in
zooplankton 0.04
ppm
DDT in water
0.000003 ppm, or
3 ppt
Fig. 9-15, p. 203
 Case Study: Where Have All the
Honeybees Gone?
• Honeybees responsible for 80% of insect-pollinated
plants and nearly 1/3 human food
• 2006: 30% drop in honeybee populations

• Dying due to
• Pesticides?
• Parasites?
• Viruses, fungi, bacteria?
• Microwave radiation – cell phones?
• Bee colony collapse syndrome
Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of
Wild Species Threatens Biodiversity
• Poaching and smuggling of animals and plants
• Animal parts
• Pets
• Plants for landscaping and enjoyment

• Prevention: research and education

Mountain Gorilla in Rwanda

Fig. 9-16, p. 205

White Rhinoceros Killed by a Poacher

Fig. 9-17, p. 205

 Individuals Matter: Pilai Poonswad
• Biologist in Thailand

• Visited poachers of rhinoceros hornbill bird and

convinced them to protect the bird instead

• Many former poachers now lead ecotourism groups

to view the birds
Professor Pilai Poonswad

Fig. 9-A, p. 206

The Rare Rhinoceros Hornbill

Fig. 9-B, p. 206

 Rising Demand for Bush Meat
Threatens Some African Species
• Indigenous people sustained by bush meat

• More hunters leading to local extinction of some wild

animals

• West and Central Africa

• Helps spread HIV/AIDS and Ebola from animals to

humans
Bush Meat: Lowland Gorilla

Fig. 9-18, p. 207

 Case Study: A Disturbing Message
from the Birds (1)
• 1/3 of 800 bird species in U.S. are endangered or
threatened
• Habitat loss and fragmentation of the birds’ breeding
habitats
• Forests cleared for farms, lumber plantations, roads,
and development
• Intentional or accidental introduction of nonnative
species
• Eat the birds
• Seabirds caught and drown in fishing equipment
 Case Study: A Disturbing Message
from the Birds (2)
• Migrating birds fly into power lines, communication
towers, and skyscrapers
• Other threats
• Oil spills
• Pesticides
• Herbicides
• Ingestion of toxic lead shotgun pellets
• Greatest new threat: Climate change
• Environmental indicators
• Economic and ecological services
Endangered Black-Browed Albatross

Fig. 9-19, p. 208

 Science Focus: Vultures, Wild Dogs, and
Rabies: Unexpected Scientific Connections
Unexpected Connections:
• Vultures poisoned from diclofenac in cow carcasses
in India
• More wild dogs eating the cow carcasses
• More rabies spreading to people
9-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from
Premature Extinction?
• Concept 9-4 We can reduce the rising rate of species
extinction and help to protect overall biodiversity by
establishing and enforcing national environmental
laws and international treaties, creating a variety of
protected wildlife sanctuaries, and taking
precautionary measures to prevent such harm.
International Treaties and National Laws
Help to Protect Species
Treaties and Laws:
• 1975: Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES)
• Signed by 172 countries

• Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD)

• Focuses on ecosystems
• Ratified by 190 countries (not the U.S.)
 Endangered Species Act
• Endangered Species Act (ESA): 1973 and later
amended in 1982, 1985, and 1988

• Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S.

and abroad

• National Marine Fisheries Service for ocean species

• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for all others

 Endangered Species Act (2)
• Forbids federal agencies (except Defense) from
funding or authorizing projects that jeopardize
endangered or threatened species

• 2010: 1,370 species officially listed

• USFWS and NMFS prepare recovery plans

• Incentives for private property owners

Science Focus: Accomplishments of the
Endangered Species Act (1)
• Four reasons ESA not a failure for removing only 46
species from endangered list
1. Species listed only when in serious danger
2. Takes decades to help endangered species
3. Conditions for more than half of listed species are
stable or improving
4. 2010: spend only 9 cents per American
Science Focus: Accomplishments of the
Endangered Species Act (2)
• Three ways to improve ESA
1. Greatly increase funding
2. Develop recovery plans more quickly
3. When a species is first listed, establish the core of its
habitat that’s critical for survival

• New law needed to focus on sustaining biodiversity

and ecosystem health
Confiscated Products Made from Endangered Species

Fig. 9-20, p. 210

 We Can Establish Wildlife Refuges
and Other Protected Areas
• Wildlife refuges
• Most are wetland sanctuaries
• More needed for endangered plants
• Could abandoned military lands be used for wildlife
habitats?
Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge

Fig. 9-21a, p. 211

 Gene Banks, Botanical Gardens, and
Wildlife Farms Can Help Protect Species
Other Solutions
• Gene or seed banks
• Preserve genetic material of endangered plants

• Botanical gardens and arboreta

• Living plants

• Farms to raise organisms for commercial sale

 Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect
Some Species
• Techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial
species
• Egg pulling
• Captive breeding
• Artificial insemination
• Embryo transfer
• Use of incubators
• Cross-fostering
• Goal of ultimately releasing/reintroducing
populations to the wild
What Can You Do? Protecting Species

Fig. 9-22, p. 213

 Case Study: Trying to Save the
California Condor
• Largest North American bird

• Nearly extinct
• Birds captured and breed in captivity

• By 2009, 180 in the wild

• Threatened by lead poisoning
 The Precautionary Principle
• Precautionary principle: act to prevent or reduce
harm when preliminary evidence indicates acting is
needed

Goals:
• Species: primary components of biodiversity
• Preservation of species
• Preservation of ecosystems
 Three Big Ideas

1. We are greatly increasing the extinction of wild

species by destroying and degrading their habitats,
introducing harmful invasive species, and increasing
human population growth, pollution, climate
change, and overexploitation.

2. We should avoid causing the extinction of wild

species because of the ecological and economic
services they provide and because their existence
should not depend primarily on their usefulness to
us.
 Three Big Ideas

3. We can work to prevent the extinction of species

and to protect overall biodiversity by using laws and
treaties, protecting wildlife sanctuaries, and making
greater use of the precautionary principle.