No.

CHAPTER 2 : System modeling in

frequency domain
 No. 2

Learning Outcome

At the end of this session, students should be able to:

 Review Laplace Transform
 Find a mathematical model, called a transfer function for linear,
time invariant mechanical and electrical systems
 No. 3

Topics
Part 1
Laplace transform – review

Part 2
Transfer function of electrical circuit

Part 3
Transfer functions translational mechanical system
 No. 4

PART 1
Laplace transform - review
 No. 5

Introduction
Step in built up a control systems:-
Obtaining system’s schematic (block diagram)
Develop mathematical models from schematics of physical
system

The methods that have been used are:-

Transfer functions in frequency domain (chapter 2)
State equations in the time domain (chapter 3)
 No. 6

Laplace Transform (LT) Review

System represented by differential equation is difficult to model
as block diagram. Thus, LT is used. By LT, input, output and
system can be represented separately.
 The LT is defined as:


L[ f (t )]  F ( s )   f (t )e  st
dt Eq. 2.1
0

where s    jw is a complex variable.

 No. 7

Laplace Transform (LT) Review (cont.)

Using Eqn 2.1, it is possible to derive a table relating f(t) to F(s)

for specific cases as shown in Table 2.1.

In addition to the Laplace Transform table (Table 2.1), we can

use Laplace Transform theorems, listed in Table 2.2, to assist in
transforming between f(t) to F(s) and F(s) to f(t) or we called as
Inverse Laplace Transform.
 No. 8

Table 2.1 Laplace transform table

Table 2.2 Laplace transform theorems No. 9
 No. 10

Example 1
Find the Laplace transform of f(t) = Ae-atu(t).

Solution : 
Refer to Table 2.1
A 1
sa

F (s )  A 
1 A

sa sa
 No. 11

Example 2
d3y d2y dy
Find the Laplace transform of y (t )  3  3 2  5  4 y
dt dt dt
 

Solution : 
Refer to Table 2.2
d3y d2y dy
y (t )  3  3 2  5  4 y
dt dt dt

Y(s)  s 3Y(s)  3s 2 Y(s)  5sY(s)  4 Y(s)

 No. 12

Example 3
Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  Atu (t )
 

Solution : 
1
f (t )  tu (t )  2
s
A
F (s)  2
s
 No. 13

Example 4
1
Find the inverse Laplace transform of F ( s ) 
 s 3 2

Solution : 
Refer to Table 2.1
1
f (t )  tu (t )  2
s
 3t 1
f (t )  e u (t ) 
s3
1
F (s)  f (t )  e 3t tu (t )
 s  3 2
 No. 14

Example 5
Find the Laplace transform of

d3y dy
y (t )  5 3  3  2 y
 
dt dt

Answer : 
Y(s)  5s 3 Y(s)  3sY(s)  2 Y(s)
 No. 15

Example 6

Find the inverse Laplace transform of

2
F ( s)  2
s  22

Answer : 
f (t )  sin 2tu (t )
 No. 16

The Transfer Function

The transfer function is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the
output of a system to the Laplace transform of the input. As a
example, the transfer function, G(s) for a system representation
in Figure 2.1 is

Input Output
c( s ) r(s)
System
c(s)
r ( s)
Figure 2.1
 No. 17

The transfer function (cont.)

A general nth order, linear, time-invariant differential equation is

d n c (t ) d n1c (t )
an n
 an1 n 1
 ...  a0 c (t ) 
dt dt
d m r (t ) d m1r (t )
bm m
 bm1 m 1
 ...b0 r (t )
dt dt

where, c(t) : output

r(t) : input
a and b : constants
 No. 18

The transfer function (cont.)

Taking Laplace transform of both side,

ansnC(s) + an-1sn-1C(s) +… + a0C(s) + initial condition =
bmsmR(s) + bm-1sm-1R(s) +… + b0R(s) + initial condition
 No. 19

The transfer function (cont.)

Assume all initial conditions are zero,

(ansn + an-1sn-1 +… + a0) C(s) = (bmsm + bm-1sm-1 +… + b0) R(s)

Therefore, the transfer function is…………

C (s)
 G(s)
R( s)
(bm s m  bm-1 s m-1    b0 )
G ( s) 
(an s n  an-1 s n-1    a0 )
 No. 20

The transfer function (cont.)

It separate output, input and system.
The transfer function can be represented as a block
diagram as shown in Figure 2.2.

G(s)

Figure 2.2
 No. 21

Example 7

Find the transfer function represented by

dc(t )
 2c(t )  r (t )
dt
 No. 22

Solution : Example 7

Taking LT both side (refer Table 2.1 and 2.2), and

assume zero initial condition
dc(t )
 2c(t )  r (t )
dt

sC ( s)  2C ( s)  R ( s )

C(s) 1
G(s)  
R(s) s2
 No. 23

Example 8
Use the results of Example 7 to find the response, c(t)
to an input r(t)=u(t), a unit step. Assume zero initial
condition.

dc(t )
 2c(t )  r (t )
dt
where r(t) = u(t),
 No. 24

Solution: Example 8

dc(t )
 2c(t )  r (t )
dt
dc(t )
 2c(t )  u (t )
dt
1
sC ( s )  2C ( s ) 
s
1
( s  2)C ( s ) 
s Check
1
C ( s)  table 2.1
s ( s  2)
 No. 25

Solution: Example 8 (continue)

1
C ( s)  No data in the table?
s ( s  2)

Use partial fraction.

1 A B
C(s)   
s(s  2) s s  2
1 1 1
C(s)   
s(s  2) 2s 2( s  2)

1 1  2t
c(t )   e
2 2
 No. 26

Example 9
Find the transfer function, G(s) corresponding to differential
equation

d 3c d 2c dc d 2r dr
3
3 2 7  5c  2
4  3r
dt dt dt dt dt

Answer :
s 2  4s  3
G(s)  3
s  3s 2  7s  5
 No. 27

Example 10
Find the differential equation corresponding to the transfer
function.

2s  1
G(s)  2
s  6s  2

Answer :
d 2c(t ) dc(t ) dr (t )
2
6  2c(t )  2  r (t )
dt dt dt
 No. 28

Exercise 1
Find the transfer function, G(s) corresponding to differential
equation

d 3c d 2c d 2r dc d 2r dr
3
2 2 3 2 7  5c  r  5 2  4  3c
dt dt dt dt dt dt

Answer :
2s 2  4s  1
G(s)  3
s  2s 2  7s  2
 No. 29

PART 2
Electric network transfer function
 No. 30

Introduction
 Apply transfer function to mathematical modeling of electrical circuit
including passive network and Op-Amp circuit.

 Equivalent circuits for the electric networks that we work with first consist of
three passive linear components: resistors, capacitors and inductors.

 Table 2.3 summarizes the components and the relationships between voltage
and current and between voltage and charge under zero initial conditions.

 From these relationships, we can write the differential equations for the circuit
using Kirchhoff’s laws.

 Then we can take the Laplace transforms of the differential equations and
finally solve for the transfer function.
 No. 31

Introduction (continue)

Or we can use transform methods:

loop or mesh analysis – Kirchhoff’s voltage law
nodal analysis – Kirchhoff’s current law
 No. 32

Table 2.3 Voltage-current, voltage-charge, and impedance

relationships for capacitors, resistors, and inductors
Component voltage- current- voltage- impedance admittance
current voltage charge
 No. 33

Introduction (continue)

Simple, Single-loop Electrical Network

 mesh analysis
• via the differential equation (Ex 11)
• via transform method (Ex 11)
 nodal analysis
• via transform method (Ex 11)
Example 11- Single Loop via the No. 34

differential equation

Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, VC(s) to

the input voltage, V(s).

Figure 2.3
 No. 35

Solution : Example 11

t
di (t ) 1
L  Ri (t )   i (t )dt  v(t )
dt C0

Changing variables from current to charge using i(t) = dq(t)/dt

d 2 q (t ) dq (t ) 1
L 2
R  q (t )  v(t )
dt dt C
 No. 36

Solution : Example 11 (continue)

From the voltage-charge relation in Table 2.3

1
vc (t )  q (t ) q(t )  Cvc (t )
C

d 2 vc (t ) dvc (t )
LC 2
 RC  vc (t )  v(t )
dt dt
Taking the Laplace transform

LCs 2Vc ( s )  RCsVc ( s )  Vc ( s )  V ( s )

 No. 37

Solution : Example 11 (cont.)

LCs 2Vc ( s )  RCsVc ( s )  Vc ( s )  V ( s )

Rearrange terms and simplifying yields

( LCs 2  RCs  1)Vc ( s )  V ( s )

Solving for the transfer function, Vc(s)/V(s)

VC ( s ) 1 / LC

V (s) R 1
s  s
2

L LC
 No. 38

Solution : Example 11 (cont.)

So, the block diagram of series RLC electrical network:
 No. 39

Summary
1
For the capacitor, Vc ( s )  I (s)
Cs

For the resistor, VR ( s )  RI ( s )

For the inductor,

VL ( s)  LsI ( s )
V (s)
 Z (s)
Now define the following transfer function: I (s)
 No. 40

Single Loop Transform Method

Summary of steps of single loop transform method:

1. Redraw the original network and showing all variables in
V(s), I(s) and Vc(s) respectively.
2. Replace the component values with their impedance values.
 
Solution : Example 11 – using No. 41

single loop via transform method

Repeat example 11 using mesh analysis and transform methods without

writing a differential equation.
 
t
di (t ) 1
L  Ri(t )   i ( )d  v (t )
dt C0

1
( Ls  R  ) I ( s )  V ( s )
Cs
Example 11 – using single loop via No. 42

transform method (cont.)

 
1
( Ls  R  ) I (s)  V ( s)
Cs
Solving for I(s)/V(s)
I (s) 1

V ( s ) ( Ls  R  1 )
Cs
But the voltage across the capacitor

1
Vc( s )  I ( s ) Vc( s )Cs  I ( s )
Cs
Example 11 – using single loop No. 43

via transform method

I ( s) 1

V ( s ) ( Ls  R  1 )
Cs

Vc( s)Cs 1

V ( s) 1
( Ls  R  )
Cs

Vc( s ) 1

V ( s ) ( Ls  R  1 )Cs
Cs
Example 11 – using single loop via No. 44

transform method

 
Vc( s ) 1

V ( s ) ( Ls  R  1 )Cs
Cs

VC ( s ) 1 / LC

V ( s) R 1
s  s
2

L LC
 No. 45

Example 11 – using nodal analysis

Repeat example 11 using nodal analysis and transform methods without
writing a differential equation.

Solution:
From I(s)=V(s)/Z(s),

VC ( s ) Vc( s )  V ( s )
 0
1 R  Ls
Cs
Solution : Example 11 – using nodal No. 46

analysis

VC ( s ) Vc( s )  V ( s )
 0
1 R  Ls
Cs

Vc( s )  V ( s )
VC ( s )Cs  0
R  Ls
Solution : Example 11 – using nodal No. 47

analysis (cont.)
Vc( s )  V ( s )
VC ( s )Cs  0
R  Ls

Vc( s ) V ( s)
VC ( s )Cs  
R  Ls R  Ls

VC ( s )Cs( R  Ls )  Vc( s )  V ( s )

(Cs( R  Ls )  1)Vc( s )  V ( s )
 No. 48

Complex Circuit

There are two ways to find transfer function in complex circuit:

1. mesh analysis
• via transform method
2. nodal analysis
• via transform method
 No. 49
Example 12 – mesh analysis

Given the network of Figure 2.4, find the transfer function, I2(s) / V(s).

Figure 2.4
 No. 50

Solution : Example 12

Step 1 : Transform to Laplace terms

 No. 51

Solution : Example 12
Step 2 : Develop mesh equations

Loop 1 : R1 I1 ( s )  LsI1 ( s)  LsI 2 ( s )  V ( s )

1
Loop 2 : LsI 2 ( s )  R2 I 2 ( s )  I 2 ( s )  LsI1 ( s )  0
Cs
 No. 52

Solution : Example 12 (continue)

Step 3 : Simplify the equations

Loop 1: R1 I1 ( s)  LsI1 ( s)  LsI 2 ( s )  V ( s )

( R1  Ls ) I1 ( s )  LsI 2 ( s )  V ( s ) 1

1
LsI 2 ( s )  R2 I 2 ( s )  I 2 ( s )  LsI1 ( s )  0
Cs
Loop 2:

1
( Ls  R2  ) I 2 ( s )  LsI1 ( s )  0 2
Cs
 No. 53
Solution : Example 12 (continue)

Step 4 : Combine both equations and find the transfer function

1
( Ls  R2  ) I 2 ( s )  LsI1 ( s )  0 2
Cs
1 1
( Ls  R2  ) I 2 ( s )  I1 ( s )
Ls Cs
R2 1
(1   2
) I 2 ( s )  I1 ( s ) 3
Ls LCs
 No. 54

Solution : Example 12 (continue)

Substitute eqn. 3 into eqn. 1 and find the answer:
R2 1
(1   2
) I 2 ( s )  I1 ( s )
Ls LCs

( R1  Ls ) I1 ( s )  LsI 2 ( s )  V ( s )
R2 1
( R1  Ls)(1   2
) I 2 ( s)  LsI 2 ( s )  V ( s )
Ls LCs
RR R LsR 2 Ls
( R1  1 2  1 2  Ls   2
) I 2 ( s )  LsI 2 ( s )  V ( s )
Ls LCs Ls LCs
R1 R2 R1 LsR 2 Ls
( R1   2
  2
) I 2 (s)  V (s)
Ls LCs Ls LCs
 No. 55

Solution : Example 12 (continue)

R1 R2 R1 LsR 2 Ls
( R1   2
 Ls  Ls   2
) I 2 ( s)  V ( s)
Ls LCs Ls LCs
R1 R2 R1 LsR 2 Ls
( R1   2
  2
) I 2 (s)  V (s)
Ls LCs Ls LCs
I 2 (s) 1

V (s) R1 R2 R1 LsR2 Ls
( R1   2
  2
)
Ls LCs Ls LCs
I 2 (s) LCs 2
G ( s)  
V ( s) ( R1  R2 ) LCs 2  ( R1 R2 C  L) s  R1
 No. 57

Example 12 – nodal analysis

Find the transfer function, VC(s)/V(s), for the circuit in
Figure 2.4 (multiple nodes) by using nodal analysis.

Figure 2.4
 No. 58

Solution : Example 12 – nodal analysis

Step 1 : Develop node equation

VL ( s )  V ( s ) VL ( s ) VL ( s )  VC ( s )
Node : VL   0 1
R1 Ls R2

VC ( s )  VL ( s )
Node : VC CsVC ( s )  0 2
R2
Solution : Example 12 – nodal analysis No. 59

(continue)

Step 2: Rearranging and expressing the resistances as conductance,

G1=1/R1 and G2=1/R2

From eqn. 1:
VL ( s )
G1 (VL ( s )  V ( s ))   G2 (VL ( s )  VC ( s ))  0
Ls
1
(G1   G2 )VL ( s )  G2VC ( s )  G1V ( s ) 3
Ls

From eqn. 2:
CsVC ( s )  G2 (VC ( s )  VL ( s ))  0
4
 G2VL ( s )  (G2  Cs )VC  0
Solution : Example 12 – nodal analysis No. 60

(continue)

Step 3: Find the transfer function, VC(s)/V(s)

G1G 2
s
VC ( s ) C

V ( s) G G LC G
(G1  G 2 ) s 2  1 2 s 2
LC LC

where G1 = 1/R1 and G2 = 1/R2

 No. 62

Exercise 2
Write the mesh equations for the network shown below.

Figure 2.5
 No. 66
Answer for Exercise 2

Loop 1:
+(2s+2)I1(s) – (2s+1)I2(s) – I3 (s) = V(s)

Loop 2:
–(2s+1) I1(s) + (9s+1) I2(s) – 4s I3 (s) = 0

Loop 3:
– I1(s) – 4s I2(s) + (4s+1+1/s) I3 (s) = 0
 No. 67

PART 3
Translational Mechanical System Transfer
Functions
Translational Mechanical System No. 68

Transfer Functions

We have shown that electrical networks can be modeled by

transfer function.
Now we will do the same for mechanical system.
Mechanical system, like electrical network, can be have 3
passive, linear components. Two of them, the spring and the
mass, are energy-storage elements; and one of them, the
viscous damper, dissipates energy.
Translational Mechanical System No. 69

Transfer Functions

These mechanical elements are shown in Table 2.4.

In the table, K, fv and M are called spring constant, coefficient
of viscous friction and mass, respectively.
We now create analogies between electrical and mechanical
systems by comparing Table 2.3 and 2.4.
Translational Mechanical No. 70

System Transfer Functions

Figure 2.10(a) shows a similar to the simple RLC network.

This simple mechanical system requires just one differentiate
equation, called the equation of motion. Figure 2.10(b) shows
the block diagram.

Figure 2.10
 No. 71
Translational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions
TABLE 2.4: Force-velocity, force-displacement, and impedance translational
relationships for springs, viscous dampers, and mass.
Translational Mechanical No. 72

System Transfer Functions

The others way to find the transfer function is using Laplace transform
method.
First, we take the Laplace transform of force displacement column in Table
2.4, we obtain:
• for the spring, F(s) = KX(s)
• for the viscous damper, F(s) = fvsX(s)
• for the mass, F(s) = Ms2X(s)
This approach is more simple rather than to write the differentiate
equation.
 No. 73

EXAMPLE 15 - one equation of motion

Find the transfer function, X(s)/F(s), for the system of below

figure using the differentiate equation. Repeat the question
without writing the differentiate equation first.
 No. 74
SOLUTION : EXAMPLE 15 - one
equation of motion
SOLUTION : EXAMPLE 15 - No. 75

one equation of motion (continue)

SOLUTION : EXAMPLE 15 - one No. 76

equation of motion (continue)

2
d x(t ) dx(t ) Ms 2 X ( s)  f v sX ( s)  KX ( s )  F ( s)
M 2
 fv  Kx(t )  f (t )
dt dt
SOLUTION : EXAMPLE 15 - one No. 77

equation of motion (continue)

Ms X ( s )  f v sX ( s)  KX ( s)  F ( s)
2

( Ms  f v s  K ) X ( s)  F ( s)
2

X (s) 1

F ( s) Ms 2  f v s  K
 No. 78

EXAMPLE 16 - 2 degrees of freedom

Find the transfer function, X2(s)/F(s), for the system of Figure
2.11 as shown below.

Figure 2.11
Solution: EXAMPLE 16 - 2 No. 79

degrees of freedom
First, we take the Laplace transform of force displacement.
Then, find all forces on M1. We can draw the transformed free-body
diagram as shown below.
Solution: EXAMPLE 16 - 2 No. 80

degrees of freedom (CONTINUE)

The LT of the equation of motion can be written as:

(M1s2 + (fv1 + fv2)s + (K1 + K2)) X1(s) – (fv3s + K2)X2(s) = F(s)
Then, find all forces on M2. We can draw the transformed free-body diagram as
shown below.

The LT of the equation of motion:-

– (fv3s + K2)X1(s) + ((M2s2 + (fv2 + fv3)s + (K2 + K3))X2(s) = 0
 Then to find the TF, X(s)/F(s), we use Cramer’s rule.
 No. 81

Summary of Example 16

Notice again, the equations are similar to electrical mesh equation.

Sum of Sum of
Impedances Impedances Sum of applied
_
connected to X1(s) between X1 X2(s) = forces at X1
the motion at and X2
X1

Sum of Sum of Sum of applied

_ Impedances X1(s) + Impedances X2(s) = forces at X2
between X1 connected to
and X2 the motion at
X2
 No. 82
Rotational Mechanical System
Transfer Functions

Rotational mechanical systems are handled the same way as

translational mechanical systems, except that torque replaces
force and angular replaces translational displacement.
Table 2.5 shows the components along with the relationships
between torque and angular velocity, as well as angular
displacement.
Rotational Mechanical System No. 83

Transfer Functions (Continue)

Notice that the symbols for the components look the same as
translational symbols, but they are undergoing rotation and no
translation.
The values of K, D and J are called spring constant, coefficient
of viscous friction and moment of inertia, respectively.
 No. 84
Table 2.5
 No. 85

Example 17
Find the transfer function, for the rotational system shown in the below figure.
The rod is supported by bearings at either end and is undergoing torsion. A
torque is applied at the left, and the displacement is measured at the right.
 No. 86
Solution : Example 17
 No. 87
Solution : Example 17 (continue)

Assume a) b)
 No. 88
Solution : Example 17 (continue)

Next draw a free body diagram of J1,

Torque on J1 when:
a. J2 still, J1 rotated
b. J1 still, J2 rotated
c. Final FBD for J1
 No. 89

Solution : Example 17 (continue)

Then draw a free body diagram of J2,

Torque on J2 when:
a. J1 still, J2 rotated
b. J2 still, J1 rotated
c. Final FBD for J2
 No. 90

Solution : Example 17 (continue)

From these figures, we obtain the equations of motion,

( J1s 2  D1s  K )1 ( s )  K(1)

 2 ( s)  T (s)
 K1 ( s )  ( J 2 s 2  D2 s  K ) 2  0
(2)
 2 (s) K

T ( s) 

Where, ( J 1 s 2  D1 s  K ) K

K ( J 2 s 2  D2 s  K )
 No. 91

Solution : Example 17 (continue)

Notice that, the obtained equations can be written in the form:-

Sum of 
impedances  Sum of 
    Sum of 
impedances applied torques 
connected  1 ( s )    ( s ) 
   between  2  
 to the motion    at  1 
 1and  2 
at  1 

Sum of 
Sum of  impedances 
impedances    Sum of 
  ( s )  connected  2 ( s )  applied torques 
between  1    
   to the motion  at  2 
 1 and  2  at  2 
 No. 92

Example 18

Write but do not solve the Laplace transform of the equations of

motion for the system shown in below figure.
 No. 93

Solution : Example 18

( J 1 s 2  D1 s  K ) 1 ( s )  K 2 ( s )  0 3 ( s )  T ( s )
 K 1 ( s )  ( J 2 s 2  D2 s  K ) 2 ( s )  D2 s 3 ( s )  0
 0 1 ( s )  D2 s 2 ( s )  ( J 3 s 2  D3 s  D2 s ) 3 ( s )  0
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT No. 94

ANALOGS

In this section we show the commonality of systems from the various

disciplines by demonstrating that the mechanical systems can be
represented by equivalent electric circuits.
An electric circuit that is analogous to a system from another discipline is
called an electric circuit analog.
When compared with mesh equations, the resulting electric circuit is called
a series analog.
When compared with nodal equations, the resulting electric circuit is called
a parallel analog.
 No. 95

Series Analog

Figure 2.25
 No. 96

Series Analog (continue)

Consider the translational mechanical system shown in Figure 2.25(a). The

equation of motion is

( Ms 2  f v s  K ) X ( s)  F ( s )
While, Kirchhoff’s mesh equation for the simple series RLC network shown
in Figure 2.25(b) is:
1
( Ls  R  ) I ( s )  E ( s)
Cs
 No. 97

Series Analog (continue)

We can create a direct analogy by operating on Eqn.

( Ms 2  f v s  K ) X ( s)  F ( s ) s
to convert displacement to velocity by multiplying the left-hand side by
s
Thus,

( Ms 2  f v s  K ) K
sX ( s )  ( Ms  f v  )V ( s)  F ( s)
s s
 No. 98

Series Analog (continue)

Comparing both eqn of motion and eqn of simple series RLC network, we
recognize the sum of impedances and draw the circuit shown in Fig 2.25(c).
The conversions are summarized in Figure 2.25(d).
 No. 99

Example 19

Draw a series analog for the mechanical system of below figure.

 No. 100
Solution : Example 19

[M1s2 + (fv1 + fv2)s + (K1 + K2)] X1(s) – (fv3s + K2)X2(s) = F(s)

– (fv3s + K2)X1(s) + [(M2s2 + (fv2 + fv3)s + (K2 + K3)]X2(s) = 0

 No. 101

Parallel Analog

Figure 2.27
 No. 102

Parallel Analog (continue)

A system can also be converted to an equivalent parallel analog.
Consider the translational mechanical system shown in Figure 2.27(a), whose equation of
motion is given by
K
( Ms  f v  )V ( s )  F ( s)
s

Kirchhoff’s nodal equation for the simple parallel RLC network shown in Figure 2.27(b) is
1 1
(Cs   ) E (s)  I (s)
R Ls

Comparing both eq of motion and eq of simple series RLC network, we recognize the sum of
admittances and draw the circuit shown in Fig 2.27(c). The conversions are summarized in
Figure 2.27(d).
 No. 103

Example 20 – Parallel Analog

Draw a parallel analog for the mechanical system of below figure.

Answer: