Topic 6 Sensors

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this topic, you should be able to:

• Distinguish between primary and secondary
transducers and identify the primary detector-
transducer elements for various operations
• Identify and explain the working principles of
variable-inductance transducers, capacitive
transducers, piezoelectric sensors and
semiconductor sensors
• Determine the sensitivity of the various transducers
Recall: Three stages of measurement system

Display
system

Signal
conditioner
Sensor
Topic 6 - Sensors
6.1 Introduction
• detect and transduce (usually) the input (information)
into an analogous form.

Pressure sensor

Always ≤ 1 because the pickup is

only receive & process.
Sensitivity of a sensor

Sensitivity, ≈ constant

• A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the

sensor's output changes when the measured
quantity changes.

• For instance, the sensitivity of a thermometer is

1 in/°C if the mercury in the tube moves 1 in
when the temperature changes by 1 °C. 
6.2 Loading of the signal source
• Energy is always taken from the signal source by
the measuring system  known as loading

Flow sensors Digital thermometer

• The smaller the load, the better the measuring

system.
6.3 The secondary transducer

Secondary
transducer
Primary transducer

The transducer that converts the output signal from primary

detector/detector-transducer into a usable output, usually
mechanical signal into electrical signal, but not limited to.
 [Link]
Secondary [Link]/HSW-Load-
transducer Primary [Link]
transducer
Strain  resistance
change Load  displacement/strain
6.4 Classification of first-Stage devices

Class I. First-stage element used as detector only

Class II. First-stage elements used as detector and
single transducer
Class III. First-stage elements used as detector with
two transducer stages
 Primary detector-
transducer elements

Mechanical Electrical

Contacting Resistive
spindle, pin
Inductive
Elastic member
Capacitive
Mass
Piezoelectric
Thermal
Semi-conductor
Hydro-pneumatic junction

Photoelectric

Hall effect
Advantages of electrical elements :

1. Amplification or attenuation can be easily

obtained
2. Mass-inertia effects are minimized
3. The effects of friction are minimized
4. An output power of almost any magnitude can
be provided
5. Remote indication or recording is feasible
6. The transducers can often be miniaturized
6.5 Transducer / sensing elements

6.5.1 Variable-resistance transducer elements

• Resistance of an electrical conductor:
6.5.2 Sliding-contact devices
• Convert mechanical displacement input into
electrical output, either voltage or current
6.5.3 The resistance strain gage
• Application of a strain to a resistance element
changes its resistance  basis for the resistance
strain gage

[Link]
wiki/Strain_gauge
6.5.4 Thermistors
• Thermally sensitive variable resistors made of
ceramic-like semiconducting materials
6.5.4 Thermistors
• Thermally sensitive variable resistors made of
ceramic-like semiconducting materials

• Two basic applications: (i) as temperature-

sensing elements and (ii) electric-power-sensing
devices
6.5.5 The thermocouple
6.5.6 Variable inductance transducers

Inductance

· n. Physics the property of an electric conductor

or circuit that causes an electromotive force to be
generated by a change in the current flowing.

[Link]
 ‘Inductance is typified by the behavior of a
coil of wire in resisting any change of electric
current through the coil.’

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]/Hbase/magnetic/
[Link]#c2
 Variable-Inductance Transducers

Variable self- Variable

Variable
inductance mutual
reluctance
inductance

Single coil Moving iron

Two coil

Two coil Moving coil

Three coil
Moving magnet
 Number of turns

Size of coil
Inductance,

Permeability of
magnetic flux path
• Inductance of a straight, cylindrical air-core coil

l [Link]
op/advice/coils/air_coils.html
• When flux path includes both magnetic material
and air gap, the inductance may be estimated as

Reluctance
• In many instances, the permeability of the
magnetic material is sufficiently high that only the
air gaps need to be considered, thus
• When an a.c. excitation is used,

Inductive reactance:  
𝑋 𝐿=2 𝜋 𝑓𝐿
 
1
Capacitive reactance: 𝑋 𝐶 =−
2 𝜋 𝑓𝐶  
  2 2
Total impedance: 𝑍 =√ 𝑋 + 𝑅
 
+

What is the difference between impedance

and resistance?
A Generic Sensor Circuit Analysis using A.C

Supply voltage (A.C)

I Circuit load (normally

a resistor)

Connect to Load by the sensor

sensor

Ground
Let’s try

6.1. Consider an inductive displacement probe having

a diameter of 0.25 in. If the probe is set at a “stand-
off” distance of 0.050 in. relative to a shaft, determine the
probe sensitivity (mV/0.001 in. displacement) when the
probe is used as shown in the circuit shown in Figure
6.25. Assume Eq. (6.3c) is valid here with n = 100 and
that the excitation frequency is 1000 Hz.
LET’S RECALL
 LET’S RECALL
Cross-
Number of sectional
Permeability of turns area of flux
free space
path

Inductance
Length of flux
path in air
[Link] Simple Self-Inductance Arrangements
• Flux path may be changed by a change in air gap

ha2 ha1
·  Form of two-coil self-inductance:
[Link] Two-Coil Mutual-Inductance Arrangements

Pickup
[Link] The Differential Transformer

V1 – V2

V1 V2
[Link] Variable-Reluctance Transducers

Magnetic reluctance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 
Magnetic reluctance or "magnetic resistance",
is analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit
(although it does not dissipate magnetic energy).
In likeness to the way an electric field causes an
electric current to follow the path of least
resistance, a magnetic field causes magnetic flux
to follow the path of least magnetic reluctance.
 Inductive Loop Detector

Traffic at some intersections is controlled with the aid of inductive loop

detectors (ILD). An ILD is a loop of conducting wire embedded just a few
[Link] &
centimeters below the pavement. When a vehicle passes through the
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
6.5.7 Capacitive Transducers
• Capacitance C is given A
o
by d
Permittivity of free Dielectric constant of
space medium between plates

Area of overlap

Separation of plates
• Capacitance of a stack of n equally spaced plates
in which alternate plates are connected to one
another is:
o
d

.
.
.
.
.
.

n
• Examples in transducer applications

Changing Dielectric Constant

• Examples in transducer applications

Changing Dielectric Constant

Changing Area
 1

Changing Area
 2

Changing Area
 d1

d1
1
Changing Distance
 d2

2
Changing Distance
Let’s try
6.3. For a capacitive displacement transducer whose
behavior can be represented by Eq. (6.6a),
determine an expression for the sensitivity deo/d(d)
for an excitation frequency f if the transducer is used
as shown in Fig. 6.26.
Let’s try
6.6. Consider the capacitive displacement transducer in
Fig. 6.26 to be governed by the following relationship:

where
C = capacitance (pF),
A = cross-sectional area of transducer tip (in.2),
d = air-gap distance (in.)
Determine the change in eo when the air gap changes
from 0.010 in. to 0.015 in.
[Link]
What is the difference between inductive and
capacitive sensors?
Inductive sensors Capacitive sensors
- use a magnetic field to - use an electric field.  
detect objects.   - capable of sensing dielectric
- object to be sensed must be material as well as a
conductive. conductive object.
- suitable to sense metal - suitable to sense both metal
objects. and non-metal objects
6.5.8 Piezoelectric Sensors
• Piezoelectric effect is the generation of electric charge in
non-conducting materials, such as quartz crystals and
ceramics, when they are subjected to mechanical stress or
conversely, the change in dimension when they are
subjected to voltage

[Link]
6.5.8 Piezoelectric Sensors
• Certain materials can generate an electrical charge
when subjected to mechanical strain or, conversely, can
change dimensions when subjected to voltage [Fig.
6.15(a)].

• This is known as the piezoelectric effect.

• Of all the materials that exhibit the effect, none

possesses all the desirable properties, such as
 stability,
 high output,
 insensitivity to temperature extremes and humidity,
 the ability to be formed into any desired shape.

• Quartz is the most stable, but its output is low. It is

commonly used for regulating electronic oscillators
6.5.8 Piezoelectric Sensors

[Link]
• Equivalent circuit for a piezoelement:

• In terms of the stress

G = 0.055 Vm/N for quartz in compression

Let’s try
6.2. It is desired to construct a dynamic
compression force cell capable of measuring forces
in the range of ±1000 N. If a quartz disk 1.0 mm
thick and 10 mm in diameter is used as the sensing
element, determine the force cell sensitivity (mV/N).

GhF GhF
V  Gh  
A  D2
4

dV V
  700.28 mV
dF F N
6.5.9 Semiconductor Sensors
• Semiconductor technology has produced
compact and inexpensive sensors:

Gas Sensor (Semiconductor Sensor)

6.5.9 Semiconductor Sensors

[Link]
6.5.9 Semiconductor Sensors
• Semiconductor technology has produced
compact and inexpensive sensors:

[Link]

Piezoresistive pressure sensor

Capactive pressure sensor
Accelerometer
SEM image of MEMs device
[Link] Electrical Behavior of Semiconductors
• Number of charge carriers, nc, is a function of
temperature, T :

· Since the resistivity of material is proportional to

1/nc, a semiconductor’s resistance decreases
rapidly with increasing temperature
· Greater control over semiconductor’s electrical
behavior is obtained by doping it with impurity
atoms (electron donors for acceptors)
[Link]
• Semiconductors also respond to strain:
[Link] pn-Junctions
• Most semiconductor devices involve a
junction, at which n-type and p-type doping
meet:
• When a voltage is applied to the junction, the current
through it varies as shown:
q = charge of an electron

k = Boltzmann’s constant

Threshold
reverse saturation current
[Link] Photodiodes

• Semiconductor junctions are sensitive to light as well as

heat.
• Irradiating light produces an additional current, Iλ, at the
junction:

• Photocurrent, Iλ, is directly proportional to the intensity,

H, of the incoming light (in W/m2):
• Voltage-current characteristics of a photodiode:
 [Link]
[Link]
6.5.10 Light-Detecting Transducers

(Self-study)

• Two-dimensional arrays of photodetectors allow

the contruction of digital cameras

Image sensor
(CCD)
6.5.11 Hall-Effect Sensors
• Hall effect - appearance of transverse voltage
difference on conductor carrying current
perpendicular to magnetic field:
• Because the electrons carry a charge -q, they
experience a magnetic force FB in the z-direction:

• Charge distribution creates an electric field, E,

whose force in steady state is equal and opposite
the magnetic force on the electrons:

• The magnitude of the electric field is E = vdB

 • Because the electrons carry a charge -q, they
experience a magnetic force FB in the z-direction:

• Charge distribution creates an electric field, E,

whose force in steady state is equal and opposite
the magnetic force on the electrons:

• The magnitude of the electric field is E = vdB

[Link]
• Voltage difference across a conductor of height l is
[Link]

[Link]
Let’s try
6.10. The circuit of Figure 6.28 may be used to operate a
photodiode. The voltage Vr is a reverse-bias voltage large
enough to make diode current, i, proportional to the incident
light intensity, H. Under this condition, i/H = 1μA/(W/m2).
(a) Show that the output voltage, Vout, varies linearly with H.
(b) If H = 1000 W/m2, Vr = 5 V, and an output voltage of 1 V is
desired, determine an appropriate value of Rload.