Vibration…
Vibration is a
mechanical phenomenon
whereby oscillations
occur about an
equilibrium point. The
word comes from Latin
vibrationem. The
oscillations may be
periodic, such as the
motion of a pendulum—
or random, such as the
movement of a tire on a
gravel road.
VIBRATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION SIGNAL
AMPLITUDE
FREQUENCY
PHASE
TYPES OF VIBRATION PICK UP
PROXIMITY PROBE ===== Displacement ==== Micron
VELOCITY PICK UP ===== Velocity ==== mm/sec
ACCELEROMETER ====== Acceleration ==== g
Displacement Sensors
Pro’s and Con’s
– Pro’s
» Measures Displacement
» Rugged
– Con’s
» Limited Frequency Range (0-1000Hz)
» Susceptible to electrical or mechanical runout
» Installation Issues
Velocity Sensors
Pro’s and Con’s
– Pro’s
» Measures Velocity
» Easier Installation than Displacement
– Con’s
» Limited Frequency Range (0-2000Hz)
» Susceptible to Calibration Problems
» Large Size
Acceleration Sensors
Pro’s and Con’s
– Pro’s
» Measures Accel.
» Small Size
» Easily Installed
» Large Frequency Range (1-10,000 Hz)
– Con’s
» Measures Acceleration (requires Integration to Vel.)
» Susceptible to Shock & Requires Power
UNITS OF VIBRATION
(A) DISPLACEMENT
MICRONS, PEAK TO PEAK
MICRONS, 0 TO PEAK
MICRONS, RMS
(B) VELOCITY
MM/SEC, 0 TO PEAK
MM/SEC, RMS
(C)ACCELERATION
M/SEC2, PEAK
M/SEC2, RMS
G, PEAK
G, RMS
UNITS OF VIBRATION
RMS 0 - Peak
Average
Peak - Peak
RMS = 0.707 x (0-Peak)
Average = 0.637 x (0-Peak)
Peak to Peak = 2 x (0-Peak)
Relationships of Acceleration, Velocity
and Displacement
Automated Monitoring
Concepts
Looseness
Detect Detailed Machinery Problems Problem!
– Unbalance, Misalignment, Looseness, Shaft Cracks,
Oil Whirl, Phase, Rubs, Gear and Bearing Problems
Signal Processing Flow
Transducer
Waveform
Amplitude
Time
FFT
Spectrum
Amplitude
Data Collector/Analyzer Frequency
Time Waveform
Amplitude
Heavy Spot
+
0 Time
360 degrees
-
Rotation
1 revolution
3600 rpm = 3600 cycles per minute
60 Hz = 60 cycles per second
1 order = one times turning speed
Time Waveform
Amplitude
+
0 Time
-
1000 rpm 1 revolution
4 blades = vibration occurs 4 times per revolution
4 x 1000 rpm = vibration occurs at 4000 cycles per minute
= 4000 cpm
Time Waveform
Amplitude
+
12 tooth
gear 0 Time
-
1 revolution
1000 rpm
12 teeth are meshing every revolution of the gear
12 x 1000 rpm = vibration occurs at 12,000 cycles per minute
= 2,000 cpm = 200 Hz
+
0 Time
0 Time
+
0 Time
-
Complex Time Waveform
Time Waveform contains all the different
frequencies mixed together
+
0 Time
-
Complex Time Waveform
Time Waveform contains all the different
frequencies mixed together
We are now entering the Frequency Domain
• FFT - Fast Fourier Transform
• Separates individual frequencies
• Detects how much vibration at each
frequency
TIME WAVEFORM
AMPLITUDE VS TIME
Amplitude
Frequency
Time
Amplitude
Amplitude
ncy
Time
r eque
F
Amplitude
Time
0 Time
- 1x
Frequency
0 Time
- 4x Frequency
+ Time
0
- 12x Frequency
Predefined Spectrum Analysis Bands
1xRPM - BALANCE
1.8
1.5 2xRPM - ALIGNMENT
1.2 3-5xRPM - LOOSENESS
0.9
ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS & GEARMESH
0.6
5-25xRPM 25-65xRPM
0.3
20000
5000 10000 15000
Frequency Hz
SIGNATURE ANALYSIS
Which frequencies exist and what are the relationships
to the fundamental exciting frequencies.
What are the amplitudes of each peak
How do the peaks relate to each other
If there are significant peaks, what are their source
[Link]
COUPLE UNBALANCE
1800 out of phase on the same shaft
1X RPM always present and normally dominates
Amplitude varies with square of increasing speed
Can cause high axial as well as radial amplitudes
Balancing requires Correction in two planes at 180o
[Link]
OVERHUNG ROTOR UNBALANCE
1X RPM present in radial and axial directions
Axial readings tend to be in-phase but radial readings
might be unsteady
Overhung rotors often have both force and couple
unbalance each of which may require correction
[Link]
Diagnosing Unbalance
Vibration frequency
equals rotor speed. 900
Vibration predominantly
RADIAL in direction.
Stable vibration phase
900
measurement.
Vibration increases as
square of speed.
Vibration phase shifts in
direct proportion to
measurement direction.
[Link]
ECCENTRIC ROTOR
Largest vibration at 1X RPM in the direction of the
centerline of the rotors
Comparative phase readings differ by 00 or 1800
Attempts to balance will cause a decrease in amplitude
in one direction but an increase may occur in the other
direction
[Link]
ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT
Characterized by high axial vibration
1800 phase change across the coupling
Typically high 1 and 2 times axial vibration
Not unusual for 1, 2 or 3X RPM to dominate
Symptoms could indicate coupling problems
[Link]
PARALLEL MISALIGNMENT
1x 2x
4x
Radial
High radial vibration 1800 out of phase
Severe conditions give higher harmonics
2X RPM often larger than 1X RPM
Similar symptoms to angular misalignment
Coupling design can influence spectrum shape and
amplitude
BENT SHAFT
Bent shaft problems cause high axial vibration
1X RPM dominant if bend is near shaft center
2X RPM dominant if bend is near shaft ends
Phase difference in the axial direction will tend
towards 1800 difference
[Link]
MISALIGNED BEARING
Vibration symptoms similar to angular misalignment
Attempts to realign coupling or balance the rotor will not
alleviate the problem.
Will cause a twisting motion with approximately 1800
phase shift side to side or top to bottom
[Link]
OTHER SOURCES OF HIGH AXIAL
VIBRATION
a. Bent Shafts
b. Shafts in Resonant Whirl
c. Bearings Cocked on the Shaft
d. Resonance of Some Component in the Axial
Direction
e. Worn Thrust Bearings
f. Worn Helical or Bevel Gears
g. A Sleeve Bearing Motor Hunting for its Magnetic
Center
h. Couple Component of a Dynamic Unbalance
MECHANICAL LOOSENESS (A)
Caused by structural looseness of machine feet
Distortion of the base will cause “soft foot” problems
Phase analysis will reveal aprox 1800 phase shift in the
vertical direction between the baseplate components of
the machine
MECHANICAL LOOSENESS (B)
Caused by loose pillowblock bolts
Can cause 0.5, 1, 2 and 3X RPM
Sometimes caused by cracked frame structure or
bearing block
SLEEVE BEARING
WEAR / CLEARANCE PROBLEMS
Later stages of sleeve bearing wear will give a large
family of harmonics of running speed
A minor unbalance or misalignment will cause high
amplitudes when excessive bearing clearances are
present
MECHANICAL LOOSENESS (C)
Phase is often unstable
Will have many harmonics
Can be caused by a loose bearing liner, excessive
bearing clearance or a loose impeller on a shaft
ROTOR RUB
Truncated waveform
Similar spectrum to mechanical looseness
Usually generates a series of frequencies which may
excite natural frequencies
Subharmonic frequencies may be present
Rub may be partial or through a complete revolution.
RESONANCE
Resonance occurs when the Forcing Frequency
coincides with a Natural Frequency
1800 phase change occurs when shaft speed passes
through resonance
High amplitudes of vibration will be present when
a system is in resonance
BELT PROBLEMS (D)
BELT RESONANCE
RADIAL
1X RPM
BELT RESONANCE
High amplitudes can be present if the belt natural
frequency coincides with driver or driven RPM
Belt natural frequency can be changed by altering the
belt tension
BELT PROBLEMS (A)
WORN, LOOSE OR MISMATCHED BELTS
BELT FREQUENCY
HARMONICS
Often 2X RPM is dominant
Amplitudes are normally unsteady, sometimes pulsing with
either driver or driven RPM
Wear or misalignment in timing belt drives will give high
amplitudes at the timing belt frequency
Belt frequencies are below the RPM of either the driver or the
driven
BELT PROBLEMS (C)
ECCENTRIC PULLEYS
RADIAL
1X RPM OF
ECCENTRIC
PULLEY
Eccentric or unbalanced pulleys will give a high 1X
RPM of the pulley
The amplitude will be highest in line with the belts
Beware of trying to balance eccentric pulleys
BELT PROBLEMS (B)
BELT / PULLEY MISALIGNMENT
1X DRIVER
OR DRIVEN
Pulley misalignment will produce high axial vibration
at 1X RPM
Often the highest amplitude on the motor will be at the
fan RPM
HYDRAULIC AND
AERODYNAMIC FORCES
BPF = BLADE PASS
FREQUENCY
If gap between vanes and casing is not equal, Blade Pass
Frequency may have high amplitude
High BPF may be present if impeller wear ring seizes on
shaft
Eccentric rotor can cause amplitude at BPF to be excessive
HYDRAULIC AND
AERODYNAMIC FORCES
FLOW TURBULENCE
Flow turbulence often occurs in blowers due to
variations in pressure or velocity of air in ducts
Random low frequency vibration will be generated,
possibly in the 50 - 2000 CPM range
HYDRAULIC AND AERODYNAMIC
FORCES
CAVITATION
Cavitation will generate random, high frequency broadband
energy superimposed with BPF harmonics
Normally indicates inadequate suction pressure
Erosion of impeller vanes and pump casings may occur if left
unchecked
Sounds like gravel passing through pump
BEAT VIBRATION
WIDEBAND SPECTRUM
F1 F2
ZOOM
SPECTRUM
A beat is the result of two closely spaced frequencies
going into and out of phase
The wideband spectrum will show one peak pulsating up
and down
The difference between the peaks is the beat frequency
which itself will be present in the wideband spectrum
ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS
STATOR ECCENTRICITY
SHORTED LAMINATIONS
AND LOOSE IRON
Stator problems generate high amplitudes at
2FL (2X line frequency )
Stator eccentricity produces uneven stationary air
gap, vibration is very directional
Soft foot can produce an eccentric stator
FREQUENCIES PRODUCED BY ELECTRICAL
MOTORS.
• Electrical
Electrical line
line frequency.(
frequency.(FL
FL)) == 50Hz
50Hz == 3000
3000 cpm.
cpm.
60HZ
60HZ == 3600
3600 cpm
cpm
• No
No of
of poles.
poles. ((P
P))
• Rotor
Rotor Bar
Bar Pass
Pass Frequency
Frequency ((Fb
Fb)) == No
No of
of rotor
rotor bars
bars xx
Rotor
Rotor rpm.
rpm.
• Synchronous
Synchronous speed
speed ((Ns Ns)) == 2xFL
2xFL
P
P
• Slip
Slip frequency
frequency (( FFSS )=
)= Synchronous
Synchronous speed
speed -- Rotor
Rotor rpm.
rpm.
• Pole
Pole pass
pass frequency
frequency ((FFPP )=
)= Slip
Slip Frequency
Frequency xx No
No of
of Poles.
Poles.
ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
(Loose Stator Coils)
Loose stator coils in synchronous motors generate high
amplitude at Coil Pass Frequency
The coil pass frequency will be surrounded by 1X
RPM sidebands
ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS
POWER SUPPLY
PHASE PROBLEMS
(Loose Connector)
Phasing problems can cause excessive vibration at 2FL
with 1/3 FL sidebands
Levels at 2FL can exceed 25 mm/sec if left uncorrected
Particular problem if the defective connector is only
occasionally making contact
ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS
ECCENTRIC
ECCENTRICROTOR ROTOR
((Variable
VariableAir Gap))
AirGap
Eccentric rotors produce a rotating variable air gap,
this induces pulsating vibration
Often requires zoom spectrum to separate 2FL and
running speed harmonic
Common values of FP range from 20 - 120 CPM
ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS
DC MOTOR PROBLEMS
DC motor problems can be detected by the higher than
normal amplitudes at SCR firing rate
These problems include broken field windings
Fuse and control card problems can cause high amplitude
peaks at frequencies of 1X to 5X Line Frequency
ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS
ROTOR PROBLEMS
1X, 2X, 3X, RPM with pole pass frequency sidebands
indicates rotor bar problems.
2X line frequency sidebands on rotor bar pass
frequency (RBPF) indicates loose rotor bars.
Often high levels at 2X & 3X rotor bar pass frequency
and only low level at 1X rotor bar pass frequency.
ROTOR BAR FREQUENCIES
(SLOT NOISE)
POLE POLE
MINIMUM MAXIMUM
MAX
MIN
[Link]
CALCULATION OF GEAR MESH
FREQUENCIES
1700 RPM
51 TEETH
31 TEETH
20 TEETH
8959 RPM -- HOW MANY TEETH ON THIS GEAR?
GEARS
NORMAL SPECTRUM
2625 rpm
8 teeth GMF= 21k CPM
1500 rpm
14 teeth
Normal spectrum shows 1X and 2X and gear mesh
frequency GMF
GMF commonly will have sidebands of running speed
All peaks are of low amplitude and no natural
frequencies are present
GEARS
TOOTH LOAD
Gear Mesh Frequencies are often sensitive to load
High GMF amplitudes do not necessarily indicate a
problem
Each analysis should be performed with the system at
maximum load
GEARS
TOOTH WEAR
8 teeth GMF = 21k CPM
2625 rpm
14 teeth
1500 rpm
Wear is indicated by excitation of natural frequencies
along with sidebands of 1X RPM of the bad gear
Sidebands are a better wear indicator than the GMF
GMF may not change in amplitude when wear occurs
GEARS
GEAR ECCENTRICITY AND BACKLASH
Fairly high amplitude sidebands around GMF suggest
eccentricity, backlash or non parallel shafts
The problem gear will modulate the sidebands
Incorrect backlash normally excites gear natural
frequency
GEARS
GEAR MISALIGNMENT
Gear misalignment almost always excites second order
or higher harmonics with sidebands of running speed
Small amplitude at 1X GMF but higher levels at 2X
and 3X GMF
Important to set Fmax high enough to capture at least
2X GMF
GEARS
CRACKED / BROKEN TOOTH
TIME WAVEFORM
A cracked or broken tooth will generate a high
amplitude at 1X RPM of the gear
It will excite the gear natural frequency which will be
sidebanded by the running speed fundamental
Best detected using the time waveform
Time interval between impacts will be the reciprocal of
the 1X RPM
D0 Nb Bd (
DB D1
BPFI = 2 ( 1 + Pd COS XRPM
Bd COS
(
BPFO = Nb
2 ( 1 - Pd X RPM
2
Bd
(1 - ( P
Pd COS
(( XRPM
BSF = 2Bd d
1 B
(1-P COS
d (
X RPM
FTF = 2 d
Note : shaft turning
outer race fixed
F = frequency in cpm
N = number of balls
ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
STAGE 1 FAILURE MODE
ZONE A ZONE B ZONE C ZONE D
gSE
Earliest indications in the ultrasonic range
These frequencies evaluated by Spike EnergyTM gSE, HFD(g) and
Shock Pulse
Spike Energy may first appear at about 0.25 gSE for this first stage
ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
STAGE 2 FAILURE MODE
ZONE A
ZONE B ZONE C ZONE D
gSE
Slight defects begin to ring bearing component natural
frequencies
These frequencies occur in the range of 30k-120k CPM
At the end of Stage 2, sideband frequencies appear above and
below natural frequency
Spike Energy grows e.g. 0.25-0.50gSE
ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
STAGE 3 FAILURE MODE
ZONE A ZONE B ZONE C ZONE D
gSE
Bearing defect frequencies and harmonics appear
Many defect frequency harmonics appear with wear the number of
sidebands grow
Wear is now visible and may extend around the periphery of the
bearing
Spike Energy increases to between 0.5 -1.0 gSE
ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
STAGE 4 FAILURE MODE
ZONE A ZONE B ZONE C
gSE
High just prior
to failure
Discreet bearing defect frequencies disappear and are replaced by
random broad band vibration in the form of a noise floor
Towards the end, even the amplitude at 1 X RPM is effected
High frequency noise floor amplitudes and Spike Energy may in
fact decrease
Just prior to failure gSE may rise to high levels
GEARS
HUNTING TOOTH
f
Ht = (GMF)Na
(TGEAR)(TPINION)
Vibration is at low frequency and due to this can often
be missed
Synonymous with a growling sound
The effect occurs when the faulty pinion and gear teeth
both enter mesh at the same time
Faults may be due to faulty manufacture or mishandling
OIL WHIP INSTABILITY
oil whip
oil whirl
Oil whip may occur if a machine is operated at 2X
the rotor critical frequency.
When the rotor drives up to 2X critical, whirl is close
to critical and excessive vibration will stop the oil
film from supporting the shaft.
Whirl speed will lock onto rotor critical. If the speed
is increased the whipfrequency will not increase.
OIL WHIRL INSTABILITY
Usually occurs at 42 - 48 % of running speed
Vibration amplitudes are sometimes severe
Whirl is inherently unstable, since it increases centrifugal
forces therefore increasing whirl forces
