BASIC

BOTANY
 CHAPTER 21 Variation

UNIT III CONTINUITY AND VARIATION

PLANT NUTRITION
AND
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

Reactions of photosynthesis

• There are two main stages to photosynthesis which takes place in

different parts of the chloroplasts:
1. Light dependant stage
• Light energy is captured by chlorophyll in the chloroplast and
then converted into chemical energy (ATP). Light energy also
causes water to split (photolysis) into hydrogen ions and oxygen.
The oxygen is a waste product.
2. Light independent stage
• The hydrogen ions produced in photolysis is used to reduce
carbon dioxide to glucose. The energy (ATP) required for this
process comes from the light dependent stage. Enzymes play a
part in this stage.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

Reactions of photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis takes place within the chloroplasts, consisting of

stacks of membranes called thylakoids, and a fluid-filled matrix
called the stroma.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

Reactions of photosynthesis

• The light-dependant reactions take place at the thylakoids,

where chlorophyll is found, whereas the light-independant
reactions take place in the stroma.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

Products of Photosynthesis
• The figure below summarises the fate of glucose during
photosynthesis:

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

When the required nutrients are needed, the cells in the

storage organs produce enzymes to digest the stored food
into soluble substances that can be absorbed by the plant:

• Starch is digested to maltose by the enzyme diastase. Maltose is

digested to glucose by maltase.
• Proteins are digested to polypeptides by the enzyme pepsin and
then digested to amino acids by the enzyme erepsin.
• Fats are digested to fatty acids and glycerol by the enzyme
lipase.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

The Importance of Minerals in Plant Nutrition

• For healthy growth and development, plants require mineral

nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium and sulphur.
• They are found dissolved in the soil solution and are absorbed
through the roots of the plant.
• Nitrogen provides the plant with nitrates for protein
synthesis.
• Magnesium is required for the formation of chlorophyll.
• Deficiency in these minerals results in poor growth and yellow
leaves.
• Fertilisers are usually added to the soil to provide sufficient
essential minerals.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

Limiting Factors of Photosynthesis

• Any factor that affects the rate of photosynthesis if its
quantity is changed is called a limiting factor of
photosynthesis. Changing the quantity of the other factors
does not alter the rate of photosynthesis.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

• With no light, photosynthesis cannot occur. It will not occur

even with changes in temperature or carbon dioxide. Light is
the limiting factor.
• From A – B, when light is provided, the rate of photosynthesis
increases.
• As light intensity increases, rate of photosynthesis increases.
• Maximum rate of photosynthesis is reached at point C.
• After point C, light is no longer the limiting factor as further
increases in light intensity has no effect on the rate of
photosynthesis. Another factor, such as the concentration of
carbon dioxide, is in short supply and becomes the limiting
factor.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

• Again, as carbon dioxide increases, rate of photosynthesis

increases till a maximum rate is achieved.
• At this point, another factor, such as temperature, is the limiting
factor and only by changing it will the rate of photosynthesis be
affected.
• Under natural conditions, carbon dioxide is often the limiting
factor on the rate of photosynthesis as the atmospheric level of
carbon dioxide is very low (0.03%).
• Light becomes limiting factor only during times when light
intensity is very low.
• In temperate regions, temperature is often the limiting factor in
cold seasons.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

Effects of changing the levels of conditions on the

rate of photosynthesis

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.1 Photosynthesis

Experiments of Photosynthesis

• The presence of starch in a leaf is an indication that

photosynthesis has taken place.

• To ensure that starch is absent from the leaves at the

beginning of the experiments, destarch the plants by placing
them in darkness for about 2 days.

• Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis as it traps light.

• It is a green pigment found in chloroplasts and it gives leaves

their green colour.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants

15.2 Leaf Structure and Function

You should be able to:
■ relate the structure of the leaf of a flowering plant to its function in
photosynthesis.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants

15.2 Leaf Structure and Function

Photosynthesis takes place mainly in the leaves,

which are adapted to support photosynthesis.
They must be able to:

• obtain carbon dioxide and water;

• capture sunlight;
• remove oxygen produced; and
• export glucose produced to other parts of the plant.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.2 Leaf Structure and Function

Internal structure of a leaf

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.2 Leaf Structure and Function

• The adaptations of a leaf to photosynthesis include:

▫ leaves held out at an angle and arranged to prevent overlapping:
▫ able to achieve maximum exposure to light;
▫ thin and flat leaf blade (lamina):
▫ increases surface area to trap as much light as possible;
▫ increases rate of diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide;
▫ transparent waxy cuticle layer and epidermal cells with no chloroplasts:
• cuticle layer helps prevent water loss;
• transparent cuticle and epidermal cells allow light to penetrate through to
the palisade cells beneath;
• long, thin palisade cells packed with chloroplasts:
▫ – to trap the maximum amount of light;
• air spaces between the spongy mesophyll cells:
▫ allow diffusion of carbon dioxide and water;
• network of veins containing xylem and phloem:
▫ xylem supplies water and mineral salts to the leaf;
▫ phloem transports sugar products away from the leaf.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.2 Leaf Structure and Function

• Numerous stomata found

mostly in lower epidermis
– opens in sunlight to allow
gas exchange

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.2 Leaf Structure and Function

How do guard cells control the size of the stomata?

• The cells in the epidermis are made up of guard cells and
epidermal cells. Guard cells differ from epidermal cells as
they contain chloroplasts and have a thicker cell wall near the
stoma.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.2 Leaf Structure and Function

How do guard cells control the size of the stomata?

• They control the rate of gaseous exchange and amount of
water loss from transpiration by controlling the size of the
stoma.
• Stomata generally open in the light and close in the dark.

• They open and close as a result of changes in the turgidity of

the guard cells.

• The changes in turgor pressure results primarily from the

absorption and loss of potassium ions from neighbouring
epidermal cells.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.2 Leaf Structure and Function

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.2 Leaf Structure and Function

How do carbon dioxide and water enter the leaf?

• In the day, when photosynthesis occurs, carbon dioxide in the
leaf is used up rapidly. Its concentration in the leaf becomes
lower than that in the surrounding atmospheric air, so a
diffusion gradient is created.
• Thus, carbon dioxide diffuses from surrounding air through the
stomata into the air spaces in the leaf.
• The surface of the mesophyll cells is always covered with a thin
film of water so carbon dioxide can dissolve in it, then diffuses
into the cells as a solution.
• The veins in the leaf contain xylem and phloem and end among
the mesophyll cells. The xylem transports water and mineral
salts to the leaf from the roots. Once out of the xylem, the water
moves from one mesophyll cell to another by osmosis.
• Once the mesophyll cells receive the carbon dioxide and water,
photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of the mesophyll cells.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants
15.2 Leaf Structure and Function

The path of water and carbon dioxide into the leaf

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants

Key Concepts
• Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: the light-dependent stage
and light – independent stage.
• In the light-dependent stage, light energy is converted to
chemical energy; it also causes water to be split into hydrogen
and oxygen ions in a process called photolysis.
• In the light-independent stage, hydrogen ions from the light-
dependent stage reduce carbon dioxide to form glucose. The
energy required comes from the light-dependent stage. Enzymes
play a part in this stage.
• The overall equation of photosynthesis is:
▫ Carbon dioxide + water ----> glucose + oxygen

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants

Key Concepts
• Glucose is used in respiration to provide energy for cellular
activities or for formation of new cell walls.
• From glucose, the plant makes all the carbohydrates, fats and
proteins it needs. Any excess is stored as insoluble products in
the storage organs.
• When the required nutrients are needed, enzymes are
produced to digest the stored food into soluble substances.
• Minerals such as nitrogen and magnesium are required for
proper growth of plants.
• The limiting factors that control the rate of photosynthesis are
temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide
concentration.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 15 Nutrition in Plants

Key Concepts
• The presence of starch in a leaf is an indication that photosynthesis has taken
place. To ensure that starch is absent from the leaves at the beginning of an
experiment, the plant needs to be destarched.
• Photosynthesis takes place mainly in the leaf, and its structure is adapted to
obtain carbon dioxide, trap light, remove the oxygen produced and transport
the glucose produced to other parts of the plant.
• Guard cells control the rate of gaseous exchange and amount of water loss
from transpiration by controlling the size of the stoma. The stoma opens and
closes as a result of changes in the turgor of the guard cells.
• Carbon dioxide diffuses from the surrounding air through the stomata into
the air spaces in the leaf down a diffusion gradient.
• The surface of the mesophyll cells are always covered by a thin film of water
so that carbon dioxide can dissolve in it.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

TRANSPORT IN
PLANTS
 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants

16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport

System
You should be able to:
■ describe the structure of xylem vessels, sieve tubes
and companion cells;
■ understand the function of phloem in the transport
system of plants; and
■ explain how the structure of xylem vessels suits
them for their function.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport System

• A plant consists of three main organs, the leaves, stems and

roots. The leaves manufacture sugars from photosynthesis, and
the roots absorb water and minerals from the soil. The roots,
stems and leaves can be grouped into 3 tissue systems.

▫ Ground tissue system – consists of packing and supportive tissue

which makes up the bulk of the plant.
▫ Vascular tissue system – consists of xylem and phloem tissue
arranged as vascular bundles. They transport water and nutrients
between organs and also provide mechanical support.
▫ Dermal tissue system – consists of epidermal tissue which forms a
protective outer covering of plant organs.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport System

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport System
Distribution of vascular tissue in a plant

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport System

Structure and Function of Phloem

• Phloem transports organic nutrients such as sugar and amino

acids from leaves and storage organs to other parts of the plant.
• Phloem tissue is composed of a few types of cells called
companion cells, sieve tube elements or sieve tube members
and phloem fibres as well as unspecialised phloem
parenchyma.
• Sieve tube elements are elongated cells joined end to end to
form a column. Walls between 2 cells are perforated, forming
sieve pores.
• As they lack the structures needed to carry out many metabolic
processes, they rely on the companion cells, lying close to
them, for their survival.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport System

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport System

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport System

How is the phloem adapted for its function?

• The sieve tube elements are elongated and arranged to form a

continuous column.
• As the sieve tube elements have little protoplasm, they are
more hollow and so have less resistance to the flow of liquid
within them.
• The presence of sieve plates allows liquid to flow through the
sieve tube elements easily. Sieve plates have holes called sieve
pores.
• The companion cells have many mitochondria to produce
energy (ATP) needed for the transportation of organic nutrients.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport System

What evidence shows translocation occurs in the

phloem?
1. When a plant is provided with radioactive carbon dioxide,
sugars formed during photosynthesis will contain radioactive
carbon, which is found in the phloem.
2. Aphids feed on plant juices and they penetrate the phloem
with their mouthparts during their feeding. It has shown, by
analysing these aphids, that they contain sucrose and amino
acids. Cutting the stylet causes the sap to continue to come
out, showing there is pressure inside.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport System

Structure and Function of Xylem

• Xylem transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to

the other parts of the plant; it provides mechanical support to
the plant.

• Xylem tissue consists of xylem vessels, tracheids, xylem fibres

and xylem parenchyma.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport System

• Xylem vessels are elongated cells arranged end to end. As the

cells develop, their cytoplasm and end walls break down,
forming perforation plates, eventually a continuous hollow
tube.
• Their cell walls become impregnated with lignin, which causes
the cells to die and become vessel elements.
• Lignin may be deposited in various patterns e.g. annular, spiral
and pitted thickening except in regions called pits.
• Xylem tracheids are thinner than xylem vessels and have
tapering ends but no perforation plates.
• Xylem fibres have lignified cell walls while xylem parenchyma
act as packing tissue around other components of xylem. They
have thick cell walls, providing support as turgid cells.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport System

How is the xylem adapted for its function?

• The cells are elongated and arranged to form a continuous
column.
• As the cell develops, it loses its cell contents and forms a hollow
tube, allowing easy flow of water with no resistance. There is
also no barrier for water to flow from one cell to the next as the
end walls have broken down.
• Cell walls are thickened with lignin, preventing collapse of the
xylem vessel under any tension created by the transpiration
pull.
• There are pits in the lignified walls which allow lateral
movement of water.
• The lumen (central space within) of the xylem vessels is narrow,
which causes water to travel up by capillary action.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.1 Structure of the Plant Transport System

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants

16.2 Transport of Water through a Plant

You should be able to:
■ describe the processes involved in transpiration;
■ demonstrate the effect of external factors on transpiration; and
■ discuss adaptation in plants to conserve water.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.2 Transport of water through a Plant

Uptake of water through the roots

• Absorption of water and minerals takes place through the

root hairs.
• The root hair cell has a large surface area to volume ratio
which is due to its long and narrow shape.
• This increases the rate of absorption of water and mineral
salts.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.2 Transport of water through a Plant

• Water enters the root hair cells by osmosis, as its cell sap has
a lower water concentration than soil solution. Water then
passes from cell to cell by osmosis across the root cortex,
down a water potential gradient, until it enters the xylem
vessels.
• Minerals are absorbed into the root hair cells by diffusion or
active transport

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.2 Transport of water through a Plant
Movement of Water up the Stem to the Leaves
• Transpiration, which is the evaporation of water through the
stomata of leaves, creates a pull from the roots upwards to the
leaves as follows:
▫ In the leaves, water molecules leave the xylem vessels and move
from cell to cell by osmosis along a water potential gradient.
▫ Water then evaporates into the air spaces in the leaf and diffuses
through the stomata into the surrounding air.
▫ Water lost from the air spaces causes more water to evaporate
from surrounding cells. Their water potential is lowered and water
moves in from neighbouring cells by osmosis.
▫ Water is thus drawn from the xylem across the mesophyll cells
down a water potential gradient, into the air spaces and out into
the atmosphere. This is called the transpiration pull.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.2 Transport of water through a Plant
What causes water to move up a xylem vessel?

• Cohesion: forces of attraction between water molecules

• Adhesion: forces of attraction between water molecules and
walls of xylem vessels
• These ensure water moves in a continuous column up the
vessel.
• The narrow lumen of the vessel also promotes movement up
the xylem vessel under the effect of capillary action.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.2 Transport of water through a Plant

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.2 Transport of water through a Plant

Factors affecting Rate of Transpiration

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.2 Transport of water through a Plant

• Excessive transpiration is harmful to the plant, but it is

also important because:
▫ it creates a transpiration pull which carries water and
minerals from the roots to the stems and leaves;
▫ water transported to the leaves is used for
photosynthesis and it replaces water lost by the cell and
keeps cells turgid;
▫ evaporation of water from the leaves has a cooling effect
on the plant.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.2 Transport of water through a Plant
Adaptations in Plants
• Plants which live in extremely dry environments (xerophytes)
have special adaptations to control their transpiration rate and
conserve water:
▫ deep roots – reach water far underground
▫ shallow spreading roots – collect occasional rainfall
▫ leaves reduced to spines – reduce surface area for transpiration
▫ less stomata present on the leaves – reduce transpiration rate
▫ rolled leaves, leaf hairs and stomata sunk in pits – trap moist air,
increasing humidity and slowing diffusion of water vapour from the
stomata
▫ waxy leaf cuticle – impermeable to water
▫ stomata closed at midday when transpiration rate would be the
highest
▫ storage of water in succulent tissues

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
16.2 Transport of water through a Plant

Grooves in the leaves of the Marram grass

contain sunken stomata and leaf hairs that
A cactus with reduced leaves
trap a layer of air, thus reducing transpiration.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants

Key Concepts
• Vascular tissue in plants consists of xylem and phloem. They
are arranged differently in the roots, stem and leaves.
• The phloem transports organic nutrients such as sugar and
amino acids from leaves and storage organs to other parts of
the plant.
• Phloem tissue is composed of companion cells and sieve tube
elements. As the sieve tube element lacks the cell structures
needed to carry out many metabolic processes, they rely on
the companion cells for their survival.
• Sieve tube elements are arranged to form a continuous
column. They have little protoplasm and have sieve plates
containing pores so that there is less resistance to the flow of
liquid within them.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants

Key Concepts
• Xylem transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots
to the other parts of the plant. It also provides mechanical
support to the plant.
• Xylem vessels and tracheids consist of elongated cells
arranged end to end. The cells have no protoplasm and end
walls to form a continuous hollow tube. Lignin is also
deposited on the cell walls.
• Xylem vessels form a continuous hollow tube which allows
easy flow of water with no resistance. The lignified cell walls
also prevent collapse of the xylem vessel.
• Plants take in water by the roots. Water enters the root hair
cells by osmosis before it enters the xylem vessels. Minerals
are absorbed into the root hair cells by diffusion or active
transport.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants

Key Concepts
• Transpiration is the evaporation of water through the stomata
of leaves. This creates a pull from the roots upwards to the
leaves called the transpiration pull, which is the main force
that transports water up the stem to the leaves.
• Light, humidity, temperature, wind speed and water
availability are factors affecting rate of transpiration.
• Plants which live in extremely dry environments have special
adaptations to control their transpiration rate and conserve
water.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

IRRITABILITY AND
MOTION
 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants

17.1 Growth Movements in Plants in

Response to Stimuli

You should be able to:

■ describe the response of green plants to unilateral
stimuli of light and gravity.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Growth Movements in Plants in Response to Stimuli

• Plants exhibit several characteristics of living things such as

growth, response to stimuli and adaptation.

• However, plants cannot migrate if living conditions required

for growth and survival are not optimal.

• Plants can only change their growth such that they will ‘move’
towards the appropriate direction where favourable
conditions are found.

• These growth movements, known as tropisms, occur in a

certain direction in response to the direction from which the
stimulus strikes the plant.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Growth Movements in Plants in Response to Stimuli

Tropism

• Plants show several different types of tropisms. The response

of plants to light is called phototropism and the response of
plants to gravity is called geotropism.

• Tropism can be positive, where the plant, or part of it, grows

towards the stimulus, or negative, where growth occurs away
from the stimulus.

• Tropism is important as it allows plants to respond to changes

in the environment.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Growth Movements in Plants in Response to Stimuli

Phototropism directs plants to grow towards the light so

they can make food by photosynthesis. The shoots display
positive phototropism while the roots display negative
phototropism.

Phototropism in plants
UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Growth Movements in Plants in Response to Stimuli

Geotropism directs plants to manoeuvre themselves to an

upright position even if they are placed aside or upside down
in the soil. The shoots display negative geotropism to grow
upwards, towards the sunlight, while the roots display
positive geotropism, in the direction of gravity towards
moisture and dissolved minerals in the soil.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Growth Movements in Plants in Response to Stimuli

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants

17.2 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

You should be able to:
■ state the functions of plant growth substances and auxins in
controlling growth and development in plants; and
■ perform simple investigation to demonstrate growth in living
organisms.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

• Growth is defined as the increase in the number of

cells in an organism, which results in an irreversible
increase in mass.
• Development is defined as an increase in complexity
of the organism, as the cells differentiate into tissues
and carry out specific functions.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

• A major difference in the growth between plants and

animals is that plant growth does not stop after
reaching a certain size.
• Instead growth takes place throughout the plant’s
life, a process called indeterminate growth.
• Cells located just below the tips of roots and shoots
enable the plant to grow as a result of both cell
division and cell expansion. These cells are found in
tissues called meristems.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

A general plant life cycle

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

• Growth responses in plants are caused by plant hormones or

growth promoting substances. Plant hormones help
coordinate growth, development and responses to stimuli by
affecting cell division, elongation and differentiation.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

Auxin and Tropism

• The tropic responses of plant are regulated by a group of plant

growth hormones known as auxins. Auxins are mainly
produced at the tips of shoots and roots and are transported to
the region of elongation where they regulate the process of cell
elongation.
• Auxins can either stimulate or inhibit growth in plants.
• Unequal distribution of auxin at the tips of roots and shoots
causes differential growth of these cells.
• High auxin concentration promotes shoot growth, but inhibits
root growth.
• Very high auxin concentrations inhibit both root and shoot
growth.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

• The following experiment can be carried out to show how

auxin promotes stem elongation.
• Auxin is found at the shoot tip
• Auxin is a diffusible chemical
substance.
• The tropic response of plants is
due to auxin.
• Diffusion of auxin on one side
of the shoot causes cell
elongation, thus bending the
shoot.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

Phototropism

• Under conditions where there is no light or uniform light

distribution, equal distribution of auxin gives even growth and
the shoot grows straight upwards.

• With unilateral light stimulus, distribution of auxin becomes

unequal, thus giving unequal growth.

• Auxin diffuses to the shaded side of the shoot, causing the

cells there to grow faster than the cells on the other side of
the plant. This causes the plant stem to tip towards the light.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

Phototropism shown by the shoot of a seedling

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

Geotropism

• When the plant is placed horizontally, auxin which is

produced at the shoot and root tip diffuses towards the lower
side because of gravity.

• Thus the shoot bends upward and the root curves downward.

• Geotropism is significant to germinating seeds as it ensures

that the root grows into the soil and the shoot grows towards
the sunlight, regardless of how the seed is oriented when it
lands.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

Geotropism in the shoot of a seedling

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

Growth in Plants
• Growth leads to a permanent increase in size and mass of an
organism.
• There are several ways to demonstrate growth in plants. Here
are some ways to measure the growth in plants.
▫ Measuring changes in length or height of plant
▫ Measuring changes in mass of the entire plant
▫ Measuring the changes in surface area of the leaves or
roots
▫ Counting the number of leaves in a plant

When conducting experiments to measure the growth,

always measure from a number of seedlings and calculate
the average. This is a more accurate indication of growth.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants
17.1 Control of Growth and Development in Plants

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants

Key Concepts
• Tropism is a directional growth movement of plants in response to
unilateral stimulus.
• Tropism can be positive, where growth occurs towards the stimulus or
negative, where growth occurs away from the stimulus.
• The response of plants to light is called phototropism and the response of
plants to gravity is called geotropism.
• Phototropism directs plants to grow towards the light so that they can
make food by photosynthesis.
• The shoots of plants display positive phototropism, while the roots display
negative phototropism.
• Geotropism directs the roots of plants towards moisture and dissolved
minerals in the soil. The shoots of plants display negative geotropism to
grow upwards, towards the light, while the roots display positive
geotropism, to grow downwards, in the direction of gravity.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 16 Transport in Plants

Key Concepts
• Phototropism and geotropism are caused by auxins, which
are mainly produced at the tips of shoots and roots. They
promote elongation of cells within shoots.
• Unequal distribution of auxin at the tips of roots and shoots
causes differential growth of these cells.
• High auxin concentration promotes shoot growth, but inhibits
root growth. Very high auxin concentrations inhibit both root
and shoot growth.
• Growth leads to a permanent increase in size and mass of a
living organism. It can be measured by changes in length,
mass or surface area using roots or leaves, or counting the
number of leaves in a plant.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

REPRODUCTION
AND DISPERSAL
 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants

18.1 Asexual Reproduction in Plants

You should be able to:

■ describe the methods of asexual reproduction in plants.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.1 Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Natural Vegetative Propagation in Flowering

Plants
• Vegetative propagation or vegetative reproduction is a form of
asexual reproduction found in plants.
• Stems are the most common organ to be used for reproduction.
At a region on the stem known as the node, a bud grows and
develops into a new, genetically identical daughter plant.
• At a certain stage they become detached from the parent plant
and become independent.
• E.g. Runners of strawberry plant

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.1 Asexual Reproduction in Plants

• Many plants develop specialised organs with buds and a store

of food.

• During harsh environmental conditions such as winter

seasons or drought, the rest of the plant withers, leaving the
storage organs intact underground.

• When conditions are favourable, the stored food will be used

for growth of new plants. In this way, the plant can survive
from one year to the next.

• This is called perennation, and the storage organs are known

as perennating organs.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.1 Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Examples of storage organs modified from the shoots, stems and

roots of plants

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.1 Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Artificial propagation of Plants

Cuttings
• The stem of the plant is cut just below a node. The cutting is
planted in soil and adventitious roots will develop to form a new
plant.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.1 Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Layering
• The stem of the plant with a node is bent downwards into moist
soil to induce the development of roots. The rooted stem can
then be cut off from the parent and planted separately.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.1 Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Budding and grafting

• Grafting is the transplantation of part of one plant, called the
scion, onto the lower part of another plant, called the stock.
• When the scion is a bud rather than a shoot, the technique is
called budding instead of grafting.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.1 Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Tissue culture and micropropagation

• Mature plant cells with a nucleus can divide and grow into
new orgnaisms given the right conditions – totipotency.

• Micropropagation refers to
the propagation of isolated
cells or small pieces of
plant tissue in special culture
solutions. The growth of
tissue under controlled
conditions is called
tissue culture.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.1 Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Advantages of tissue culture:

• Large numbers of plants can be produced more quickly than
conventional cultivation techniques.
• Virus-free plants can be obtained, as virus-free plant tissue can
be selected and cultured.
• Plants can be produced at any time of the year and can be kept
in cold storage, taking up little space.
• If a new gene is introduced into a plant cell by genetic
engineering, the genetically modified cells can be easily cloned
to produce many new plants.

Disadvantages of tissue culture:

• As the cloned plants are genetically identical, they may not be
able to adapt to changing environmental conditions. The
appearance of a new disease or pest could wipe out an entire
crop

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants

18.2 Structure of a Flower

You should be able to:
■ describe the structure and function of parts of a fl ower.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.2 Structure of a flower

Structure of a flower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.2 Structure of a flower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.2 Structure of a flower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.2 Structure of a flower

• In most cases, flowers are not borne singly but are

grouped in a cluster on a common stalk. Such clusters
are termed inflorescences.

• Flowers can be bisexual or hermaphrodite (contains

both male and female parts) or unisexual (contains
only male or female parts). A plant with both male and
female unisexual flowers is said to be monoecious.

• If male and female flowers are borne on separate

plants, the plant is dioecious

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.2 Structure of a flower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants

18.3 Pollination
You should be able to:
■ distinguish self-pollination and cross-pollination; and
■ compare the structure of an insect pollinated flower and a wind
pollinated flower and relate these to their functions in pollination.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.3 Pollination

• For fertilisation to happen, the male and female

gametes need to meet and fuse to form a zygote.

• For the male gamete to reach the female gamete in the

ovary, the pollen grains have to be transferred from the
anther to the stigma.
• This is called pollination.

• Pollen grains can either be transferred within the same

flower or plant (self-pollination) or between flowers of
different plants (cross-pollination).

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.3 Pollination

Self-pollination and cross-pollination

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.3 Pollination

Features Favouring Cross-Pollination

• Dioecious plants bear either male or female flowers

e.g. papaya.
• In many plants with bisexual flowers, the anthers and
the stigmas may mature at different times; e.g.
avocado, soursop, custard apple
• Plants with bisexual flowers may have their stigmas
situated some distance away from the anthers so as to
render self-pollination unlikely; e.g. cordia.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.3 Pollination

Advantages of Cross-Pollination over Self

Pollination
Self-pollination:
• The offspring are weaker and less adaptable to changes in
environment.
Cross-pollination:
• It restores the vigour of a species.
• The offspring produced may have valuable qualities from both
parents.
• Abundant and more viable seeds.
• More varieties of offspring can be produced so as to increase
• chances of survival in changing environments.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.3 Pollination

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.3 Pollination

Insect-pollinated flower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.3 Pollination

Wind-pollinated flower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants

18.4 Fertilisation and Post-Fertilisation Changes

You should be able to:
■ describe the process of fertilisation in a flower; and
■ describe post-fertilisation changes in a flower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.4 Fertilisation and post-fertilisation changes

The following steps in a flower describe how the male gamete in

the pollen grain reaches the female gamete in the ovule:
1. The pollen grain germinates in response to sugary fluid secreted by
mature stigma. A pollen tube grows out from each pollen grain.
2. Cytoplasm and two nuclei (pollen tube nucleus and generative
nucleus) pass into pollen tube.
3. The growth of the pollen tube is controlled by the pollen tube
nucleus.
4. Enzymes are secreted to digest tissue of stigma and style as pollen
tube grows.
5. The pollen tube penetrates right through the style as it grows and
enters the ovule through the micropyle (an opening in the ovule
wall)
6. Along the way, the generative nucleus divides to form 2 male,
nonmotile gametes. The pollen tube nucleus soon disintegrates.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.4 Fertilisation and post-fertilisation changes

Process of fertilisation in a flower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.4 Fertilisation and post-fertilisation changes

Post-fertilisation changes in a flower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants

18.5 Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds

You should be able to:
■ describe fruit structure including adaptations for seed dispersal.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.5 Dispersal of fruits and seeds

• The main function of the fruit is to protect the seeds during

their development, and to aid in their dispersal.

• Plants disperse seeds for the following reasons:

▫ to avoid overcrowding and competition for resources with the
parent plants
▫ to enable the plants to colonise new and favourable habitats,
▫ to reduce the spread of diseases.

• Fruits and seeds make use of external agents to disperse them

to locations far away from the parent plant and they have
developed different structural adaptations for the different
methods of dispersal.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.5 Dispersal of fruits and seeds

Dispersal by Animals

Succulent fruits
• Most succulent fruits are edible. They are also scented and
have brightly coloured skins to attract animals such as birds,
bats, etc.
• They can either have large seeds or small seeds.

Dry fruits
• Unlike fleshy fruits, dry fruits do not attract animals. Some
possess hook-like structures which adhere onto the fur or skin
of animals when they brush past the plants.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.5 Dispersal of fruits and seeds

Love grass is a dry fruit.

Examples of succulent fruits

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.5 Dispersal of fruits and seeds

Dispersal by Explosive Mechanism

• Some fruits do not rely on external agents to

disperse their seeds. When the fruits dry up,
they burst open with great force to throw out
the seeds.
• This is also called a self-dispersal mechanism.
• Example – beans and peas of the legume family.
• They usually split along the lines of dehiscence.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.5 Dispersal of fruits and seeds

Dispersal by Wind

• Fruits and seeds dispersed by wind are small and light so that
they can be readily blown away by the wind.
• Other special adaptations for wind dispersal include wing-like
structures (e.g. shorea) and a parachute of fine hairs (e.g.
oleander) to increase air resistance and buoyancy in air.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.5 Dispersal of fruits and seeds

Dispersal by Water

• Fruits and seeds dispersed by water are adapted for floating,

allowing them to be carried away by water currents in the
oceans and rivers.
• A common example is the coconut.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants

18.6 Germination of Seeds

You should be able to:
• ■ describe the structure of a dicotyledonous seed; and
• ■ describe the process of germination in a seed

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.6 Germination of Seeds

A typical dicotyledonous seed contains

the following structures:

• Embryo – Contains a plumule

(developing shoot), radicle (developing
root) and two cotyledons (hence the
term dicotyledonous). Cotyledons, or
seed leaves, contain the food store of
the seed.
• Hilum – A scar on the seed, which
indicates the position of attachment of
the seed to the pod.
• Testa – The seed coat which encloses
and protects the seed.
• Micropyle – A small opening in the testa.
During germination, water enters the
seed through this opening.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.6 Germination of Seeds

Seed Dormancy

• Dormancy is the failure of seeds to germinate as

soon as they are shed, even when conditions are
ideal. Seeds can remain dormant for months or even
years.
• Dormant seeds are protected by the hard testa, and
can withstand adverse external conditions. This
ensures that seeds germinate during a season
favourable for growth.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.6 Germination of Seeds

Stages of Germination

• Germination is the onset of growth of the embryo.

• The first step in germination is the absorption of
water by the seed. This causes the seed to swell and
the testa to burst.
• The testa also becomes more permeable to oxygen.
• Water activates the enzymes in the cotyledons so
that they can digest the stored nutrients within the
cotyledons.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.6 Germination of Seeds

Products of digestion of stored nutrients in a germinating

seed
UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.6 Germination of Seeds

(a) At the start of germination, water enters through the micropyle and activates
the enzymes to convert complex food stores to simple, soluble food. (b) Glucose
and oxygen enable aerobic respiration, releasing energy for the growth of the
embryo.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.6 Germination of Seeds

Changes in dry mass of a germinating seed

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.6 Germination of Seeds

Types of Germination
There are two types of germination:
• Epigeal germination where the cotyledons are carried above
the soil, e.g. kidney bean, sunflower, castor oil.
• Hypogeal germination where the cotyledons remain below
the surface of the soil, e.g. gungo pea, maize.

Epigeal germination of sunflower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.6 Germination of Seeds
Conditions for Germination
Sufficient water
• activates the enzymes in the seed
• transports soluble end products of digestion from cotyledons to
growing regions (roots and shoots) (translocation)
Adequate oxygen supply
• is required for aerobic respiration to produce energy
• needed for activities taking place in the seed
Suitable temperature
• The temperature range within which a seed will germinate
varies with different types of seeds. The right temperature is
crucial for germination as temperature affects the rate of
enzymatic reactions
• For most plants in the tropics, 25 °C is suitable.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.6 Germination of Seeds
Conditions for Germination

Other Conditions
• some can only germinate in darkness, while others require
light.
• some need a period of exposure to cold.
• others must pass through the digestive system of an animal.
• some only germinate after a forest fi re burns the testa.
• some requires microorganisms to breakdown the testa before it
can germinate.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants

Key Concepts
Asexual Reproduction
• Plants carry out asexual reproduction by growing new
daughter plants from buds found on any part of the plant
other than the seeds.
• Specialised storage organs (rhizomes, tubers and bulbs)
enable plants to survive through harsh seasons and grow
again when conditions are favourable.
• Artificial methods of propagating plants include the use of
cuttings, layering and grafting. Such methods help to increase
the yield of desirable crops.
• Tissue culture or micropropagation, enables plants to be
multiplied rapidly by growing buds or plant tissue in special
media to induce the formation of shoots.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants

Key Concepts
Flowers and Reproduction
• Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants.
• Male gametes are contained in pollen grains, female gametes
are found in ovules.
• Plants are able to self-pollinate, or self-fertilize. Most plants
have adaptations which favour cross-pollination, so as to
increase the genetic variation and adaptive ability of the
offspring.
• Pollen can be transferred from one flower to another with the
aid of insects or wind.
• The male gamete is transported by the pollinator to the ovule,
and fertilises the ovum inside.
• The fertilised ovule becomes a seed, while the ovary becomes
the fruit. The rest of the flower either withers or is adapted to
aid in dispersal.
UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants

Key Concepts
Seed Germination
• The seed is protected by a testa with a small hole called the
micropyle through which water enters during germination.
• The embryo is made up of a radicle (embryonic root) and a
plumule (embryonic shoot), with one or two cotyledons
and/or endosperm as the food stores.
• The conditions for germination are sufficient water, oxygen,
and a suitable temperature.
• As the seed germinates, the dry mass decreases at first due to
tissue respiration to provide energy for growth. When the first
leaves develop, photosynthesis occurs and the dry mass
increases.

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY