IHM 2311: RESEARCH METHODS

Martin Ogwang
Department of Health Records and Information Management
School of Public Health
BROAD OBJECTIVE
By the end of the unit, the learner will be

able to acquire knowledge, skills and

attitudes to enable him/her conduct research
and apply its principles in patient care.
 Specific objectives
The learners will:

1. Describe the concepts of research

2. Explain the importance of research and its application in nursing

3. Describe major types of research.

4. Describe the research process

5. Discuss ethics in research

6. Demonstrate knowledge on writing research proposal

7. Conduct a research study.

Introduction
Research is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined

methods to answer questions or solve problems.

The ultimate goal of research is to develop, refine, and

expand a body of knowledge.

Nursing research is a systematic inquiry designed to

develop knowledge about issues of importance to the

nursing profession, including nursing practice,
education, administration, and informatics.
Definition of research
The word ‘research’ means ‘to search again’ or ‘to examine carefully’.

Research is diligent, systematic inquiry or study to validate and refine

existing knowledge and develop new knowledge

Definition of research cont

 Systematic study of collection of information with an

intention of using it to solve a problem/ add to a body of
knowledge.
 A process of arriving at effective solutions to problems
through systematic collection, analysis and interpretation
of data.
 Def cont’

Nursing research:
• Is search into those aspects of professional activity which are
predominantly and appropriately the concern and
responsibility of nurses.

Significance:
• Development of scientific knowledge that enables nurses to
provide evidence based health care.
 Def. cont
• Evidence based practice involve use of collective research
findings in:

i. Promoting an understanding of patients and families

experience with health and illness.

ii. Implementing effective interventions to promote patient

health.

[Link] quality cost effective care within the health

system.
 BASIC RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY

It is important to understand the meaning of research terms or concepts

Some of the terms are fundamental to the research process

 RESEARCH TERMINOLOGIES

 Study/investigation/research project: refers to the

process of using scientific approach to address a problem
or answer a question
Subjects/study participants: refers to people being

studied
Respondents/informants: subjects who provide

information to the researchers by answering questions

directly (questionnaire)
Terminologies
Researcher/Investigator/Scientist: the person who

undertakes the research

Principal investigator/Project Director: the main person

directing the study where a team of researchers are

collaborating on addressing a scientific study
Conceptualization: refers to the process of developing and
refining abstract ideas
Theory: is an abstract generalization that presents a
systematic explanation about the relationships among a
phenomena (Concepts are building blocks of theory)
 Ct terminologies
Population: refers to an entire group of individuals,
events or objects having a common observable
characteristic, Ex. KRCHN in Kenya
Target population: is that absolute population the
researcher would like to generalize the results
Variables : It is a measurable characteristic that
assumes different values in different subjects in a
sample. Ex. Weight, age expressed in years, height,
body temperature
Data: refers to all the information a researcher gathers for
the study
Ct
Qualitative research :An approach for generating

knowledge using methods of inquiry that emphasize

subjectivity and the meaning of an experience for the
individual.
Quantitative research: An approach for generating

knowledge based on determining how much of a

given behaviour, characteristic, or phenomenon is
present
Ct
Replication :The ability of researchers to

repeat a study using the same variables and

methods or slight variations of them.
Triangulation :Use of quantitative and

qualitative methods to collect data about a

particular phenomenon.
Ct terminologies
Statistics: the science of organizing, describing and

analyzing quantitative data,

It refers to indices which are derived from the data

through statistical procedures. Ex. of indices –

means, SD, median, etc.
Empirical data :Documented evidence (data)

gathered through direct observation rather than a

researcher’s subjective belief.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
A process of arriving at effective solutions to
problems through systematic data collection,
analysis and interpretation
Scientific approach to inquiry refers to:
a general set of orderly, disciplined procedures
used to acquire dependable and useful information
Scientific research:
is the application of scientific approach to the
study of a question of interest
Components of scientific approach
Order and systematization
The researcher moves in an orderly and systematic manner
from:
 The definition of the problem

 Design of the study

 Collection of information

 Solution of the problem

Control
Involves imposing conditions on the research situation so
that biases are minimized and precision and validity
maximized
Ct Components of scientific approach
Empirical evidence
Findings of scientific investigations must be grounded
in reality (experiments/observations) rather than
personal beliefs
Empirical inquiry demands objectivity on the research
situation since the ideas must be tested in the real
world
Generalization
The quality of a research study is determined by how
much the findings can go beyond the specific situation
This is called generalisability of research findings which
is an important attribute of research
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

General purpose:
To answer questions or solve
problems
Purposes of research
1. Discovery of new knowledge
Most efficient & reliable source

Most accurate in securing new knowledge

Discover new information

2. Description
Describes what exist in practice

Promote understanding of situations

Classify information for use

 Purpose cont’

3. Explanation –research clarifies the r/ships among

phenomena and identifies the reasons why certain events
occur.

4. Prediction-research helps in anticipation of effects that

certain interventions would have on patients and families.

5. Control-exercising checks and regulations on factors

affecting health and life.

6. Theory development-generation of new facts or validation of

existing ones.
 Uses of research in nursing
 Development of scientific evidence based reasons for nursing
activities.
 Finding ways of improving the cost-effectiveness of nursing
activities.
 Providing a basis for standard setting and quality assurance.
 Providing evidence in support of demands for resources in
nursing
 Focusing on priority problems that affect the nursing
profession.
 Barring and defending a professional status for nursing.
 Sources of knowledge
• Research- It is a sophisticated method of acquiring knowledge
• Traditions-Within our culture and within the nursing
profession, certain beliefs are accepted as truths
• Experience- Problems can be solved based on prior
observations and experiences
• Authority- Authorities are people with specialized expertise
• Intuition-
Limitations of research
Moral and ethical issues-e.g. researching on animals and
euthanasia
Nature of human complexity-Each individual is unique
physically, socially biologically & psychologically hence
difficult to understand.
Measurement problems-Some variables are hard to
measure.
Control problems-To achieve meaningful conclusions
and solutions, researchers have to take control of the
process. Control measures are therefore hard to
manipulate.
summary
• Research is a systematic process.

• It is a very important source of knowledge.

• Research rests on evidence based scientific facts.

• Research play a key role in professionalism and patient

care.
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
When describing types of research, researchers use
several methods of classification; as follows
1.   Categories - what the study is to be used for.
2. Methodological approaches, which includes the research
approaches that the researcher intends to adapt in the
course of the study.
3. Aims of the study, including what the study aims at
achieving.
4. The time dimension referring to the time factor of the
study, i.e, is the study a ‘one off’ case or one that will take
months or even years.
Ct classification
In broad terms, research can be classified into;
 Qualitative research approach- is ‘a systematic,

subjective approach used to describe life experiences and

give them meaning’.
 quantitative research approach -is ‘formal, objective,

rigorous, systematic process for generating information

about the world’, with respect to populations’ dynamics,
characteristics and phenomenon.
 [Link] PURPOSE

Basic research/pure/fundamental
Derive /add scientific knowledge(1)
Generate new knowledge to refine or expand existing theories
Theory development
Applied research:
Applying or testing theories
Evaluate usefulness of theories in solving problems
Provide data to support theory
Guide theory revision
Suggest development of new theory
By purpose cont’

• Action research
– Aims at solving a specific, immediate and concrete problem in a

local setting.
– Not concern with generalization of results to other settings.

– Useful in providing answers to problems that cannot wait for

theoretical solutions.

• Evaluation research
– Collection of data to facilitate decision making

– Data collected are related to a particular concern

Eval research cont’

4 important criteria evaluation research should satisfy:

Utility-usefulness to the affected people.

Feasibility-appropriateness and cost-effectivity

Propriety-rights of affected persons are protected.

Accuracy-validity, reliability and comprehensive data.

Types of evaluation research

Needs assessment research-foundation for developing new

programmes and making changes in existing ones.

Formative evaluation research-done while a programme is

still under development to aid in modification or termination.

Summative evaluation research-done after full

development of a programme to evaluate how worthwhile

the programme has been compared to similar ones.
[Link] METHODS
Descriptive studies-is ‘the exploration and description of a
phenomenon in real-life situations’
It involves the systematic collection and presentation of
data to give a clear picture of a particular situation
hypothesis generation for further experimental study
Help in suggesting associations among variables.
Types-case reports, case series and cross-sectional.

In descriptive research, the main focus is the

investigation of existing practices, beliefs and attitudes
held by people or investigating current trends of nursing
DIFFERENCE BTN DESCRIPTIVE AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Descriptive research merely describes something,

whereas experimental research tests a hypothesis.
Researchers can control variables in experimental
research but cannot do this with descriptive research.
Descriptive research may not have control of the study
subjects but experimental research has full control of the
subjects under study.
Experimental research can lead to predictions but
descriptive research may not
Cont’

Correlation methods-

Describes the degree to which variables are related.

Uses quantitative terms.

Purposes:
Explore r/ship btw variables

Predict a subjects score in one variable given his/her score

in another variable
 [Link] AIMS
Survey research-Collection of data from members of a
pop. in order to determine the current status of that pop. with
respect to one or more variables.
Can be: descriptive, explanatory etc
Purposes:
To Obtain information to describe existing phenomena e.g.
perceptions, values behaviors, attitudes etc
To explain/explore the existing status of >2 variables at a
given point in time.
To gather information from a population too large to
observe directly.
To excellently measure the characteristics of large pop.
 cont’
Observational research-observation of certain phenomena to
obtain systematic objectives.
Purpose: Collection of objective information free from the
influence of self-report methods.
Types:
Participant
Non participant
Naturalistic
Simulation
Ethnographic
Case study
Content analysis
 Cont’

Historical research- This is a type of qualitative research

that attempts to describe and learn from the past
Collecting information from the past
Involves analysis, interpretation and generalization of past
events to guide present or future behavior.
Do not gather data by administering instruments to individuals.

Sources:
 1º-1st hand knowledge from eye witnesses reports and original
documents.
 2º-2nd hand information e.g descriptions from other people who
did not really observe the event happen but heard fro others.
 Examples of historical sources

1. Eye witnesses-oral or written testimonies.

2. Products of creativity-literature, photos,

costumes/traditional attire, collections in museums, works of
art etc

3. Official records-court decisions, wills, contracts etc

4. Expressive documents-personal letters, life histories etc

 Cont ’
• Experimental research designs-Involves manipulation of
independent variables to determine their effects on dependent
variables.
• Referred to as the true or scientific research because of its strict
adherence to the three major characteristics of Control,
Manipulation and Randomization.
• Divided into single group designs and control group designs.
Cont’
Single group designs:
One short case study design
One group pre-test-post test design
Time series design

Control group designs:

Pre-test-post-test control group design

Post test only control group design

 Quasi-experimental Research
This is a type of quantitative research whose

purpose is to examine causal relationships/to

determine the effects of one variable on another
Involve implementing a specifictreatment and then

later examining the effects of this treatment

using selected methods of measurement
This is a type of intervention study.
Cont’
 [Link] DURATION OF STUDY

Longitudinal studies
These are the types of studies that are conducted over a long

duration of time.
A good example is the cohort study where individuals having a

characteristic of interest (exposure) are followed over a duration

of time.
 During the time of study the subjects are observed to see if they

develop an outcome of interest.

Cross Sectional Studies
These are the studies that are conducted over a

short duration of time (e.g. a few weeks).

Unlike the longitudinal studies they tend to be

relatively cheaper.
They are indicated where results are required

as a matter of urgency.
Retrospective Versus Prospective Research
Retrospective research - examines data collected in
the past, review of medical records.
 In these records, events have already occurred, and
variables have already been measured.
Prospective research- examines data collected in the
present.
 Prospective studies are more reliable than retrospective
studies because of the potential for greater control of
data collection.
 Researchers invest a considerable amount of time
when conducting prospective studies
 BROAD CLASSIFICATION

Qualitative research
 Qualitative research is ‘a systematic, subjective approach used
to describe life experiences and give them meaning.
 It focuses on the whole issue under investigation

 Qualitative research is a type of research where the data

collected is in the form of words rather than numbers.
 The data collected from this type of research is then grouped
into categories, themes and patterns
Data collection for qualitative research

The data from qualitative research is usually

collected through:
Observation, that is, a participant observer
or a non participant observer.
Focus group discussions. 

Face to face interviews.

Posted or self administered questionnaires

Quantitative research
Quantitative research is referred to as a formal,

objective, rigorous, systematic process for

generating information about the world, with
respect to populations’ dynamics, characteristics
and phenomenon.
Data obtained is in form of numbers.
 Difference between quantitative and qualitative designs
Quantitative Qualitative
Focuses on a relatively small number of Attempts to understand the phenomenon in its
concepts (concise and narrow). entirety.

Begins with preconceived ideas about how Has few preconceived ideas and stresses the
the concepts are interrelated. importance of people's interpretations of events
and circumstances, rather than the researcher's
interpretations.
Uses structured procedures and formal Collects information mainly without formal
instruments to collect information. structured instruments.

Collects information under controlled Does not attempt to control the context of the
conditions. research, but rather attempts to capture that
context in its entirety.

Emphasizes objectivity in the collection and Assumes that subjectivity is essential for
analysis of information. understanding of human experience

Analyses numeric information through Analyses narrative information in an organised,

CONT’

Investigator does not participate in the Involves sustained interaction with the
events under investigation and is most people being studied in their own
likely to language, and on their own turf.
collect data from a real distance.

Incorporates logistic, deductive reasoning. Inductive and dialectic reasoning are

predominant.
THE RSEARCH PROCESS
Many different research models exist, the

research process actually consists of standard

elements ; the order may vary, and the steps may
overlap in different research situations
• Consist of many interrelated steps. However, the
majority of researchers do agree on five general
phases of the research process.{Brink (1996:56)}
 Phase 1
This phase involves selecting and defining an area of

research that provides an opportunity to advance nursing

knowledge.
Through a review of related literature, the researcher

determines a rationale for conducting the study, a

justification of the need to investigate the problem and a
theoretical framework for interpreting the results.
Research questions, hypotheses, or both, are proposed in

phase 1.
Phase 2
The researcher designs the study and plans the methods

of subject selection, testing, and measurement to ensure

that all procedures are defined clearly.
The choice of the research design is based on how the

research problem is conceptualized .

These planning tasks act as guides to help with the

selection of appropriate methods for analyzing the data.

Phase 3
The researcher implements the plans that were

designed in phases 1 and 2.

Data collection is usually the most time-consuming

part of this phase.

After the data have been collected and recorded, the

researcher must organize the information into an

appropriate form for analysis
Phase 4
This phase involves analyzing, interpreting, and making

valid conclusions about the data.

Statistical procedures are applied to summarize the

quantitative data in a meaningful way .

During this phase the research hypotheses will be either

supported or not supported.

Analysis of results leads to new questions that stimulate

further study.
Phase 5
 In this final phase researchers share findings with other
colleagues.
 Reporting of research can take many forms, including
journal articles, abstracts, oral presentations, and poster
presentations.
 The research process culminates with interpreting the
findings and communicating any new knowledge gained
from the research
 The Research Process

Identification of research problem

Utilizing the findings Formulating of research problem

Communicating the findings Rationale/purpose

Research question
/hypothesis
Data analysis/interpretation Literature review

Data collection/Data entry Research Plan: Methodology/sampling

Pilot study/pre-test
1. Identification of research problem and topic

• A research problem is an issue that needs investigation or

solution.

• Research problem originates from a situation of

need, where unresolved difficulties occur
• Once the problem has been selected, it is then used to make
the study topic.
Sources of research problems:
• Existing theories

• Existing literature

• Media-news papers, radios,tv etc

• Previous research studies/reports

• Personal experiences-clinical etc

• Discussions with experts

• Replication
Importance of the research topic
1. Informs the reader about expected research output
2. It is the focus/centre of the study
N/B
 The title provides the first impression for your
audience of your proposal. 
 Your title must be complete and it should provide
the focus of your investigation. 
 Be sure that the title gives a glimpse of the nature of
the proposed investigation and includes the key
ideas
Criteria for choosing a good research topic in nursing

A nurse researcher should choose a topic that will:

 Improve nursing services by contributing to more
knowledge and better skills.
 Enhance existing knowledge by filling in gaps that exist.
 Encourage more research on already existing nursing
theories.
 Address current concerns or priority areas in nursing.
 Pay more attention to ethical issues.
A good research title should:

Written broadly and clearly.

Provide clear key words.

Brief, short and informative

Not have abbreviations or jargon.

How to choose a topic
Choose a title which clearly reflects the purpose and
content of the paper
You must choose a general topic for your research
proposal early
The textbook is a good place to start
Look at the chapter headings and read about any
topics that look interesting
Once you have identified a few possible topics begin
reading the scientific literature in these areas
cont’
The references listed in various textbooks are also a
good place to start
In addition, you can access several journals/articles
by using Google search engine on the internet
Some of the information may not be from
scientifically recognized publications and so may not
be an authority worth referencing in your research
paper
Eventually, you will narrow your reading to the topic
that most interest you
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative,

statement expressed to direct a study.

It focuses on identification and description of variables

and/or determination of the relationships among

variables.
Research Objectives and questions are important for

several reasons.
Research objectives help to:
Bridge the gap between the research purpose and the study design.

 Guide on planning for data collection and analysis.

 Summarize what is to be achieved by the study.

Build a close link with the statement of the problem.

 Keep the researcher within the scope of study by defining the area

of focus.
State your general objective followed by specific objectives for

achieving this goal by the end of the project if implement

 Objectives cont’
When formulating:
State them clearly in a way that they can be evaluated.

List them in approximate order of importance.

Ensure they are ‛‛SMART”=Specific Measurable Achievable

Realistic Time bound.

Use neutral action verbs [Link] determine, evaluate, explore,

assess, find out……

Avoid biased action verbs e.g. to check, confirm, prove,

validate,show………
 Research questions
• These are restatements of the objectives, Should be derived
from specific objectives.
• A good research question should be ‛FINER’.

– F - Feasible, allowing one to appreciate the practical limitations.

– I - Interesting, sustaining the research process.

– N - Novel, able to provide new findings

– E - Ethical.

– R - Relevant, advancing science or influencing clinical care, health care

policy among others
Ask yourself: What questions will I answer? What will I find out?
Uses of research question
In general, the formulation of a research question
assists the researcher to:
1. Focus on the study by narrowing it down to the
essentials
2. Avoid collection of data that are not necessary
3. Organise the study in clearly defined parts or phases
Hypothesis
Is a statement that explains/predicts the r/ship
or differences between two or more variables in
terms of expected results/outcomes of a study.
A tentative prediction or explanation of the r/ship
btw two or more variables.
A prediction of the answer to the research question.
A hypothesis represents an educated guess
about what will happen in an experiment
Hypotheses are always held tentatively
PURPOSES OF HYPOTHESES
To guide scientific inquiry for the advancement
of knowledge
To provide direction for the research design and
the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data
(provide a basis for selecting the sample, the
statistical analyses needed, and the relationships
to be tested)
Provide a framework for reporting the
conclusions of a study; each hypothesis can be
tested separately, and conclusions relevant to
each can be stated
Types of hypotheses:
4 types viz
1. Associative Vs Casual hypotheses
Associative-a r/ship which identifies variables that occur/exist together in the real
world.

Casual-indicates a cause and effect interaction btw >2 variables i.e. independent
and dependent
 CONT’

2. Simple Vs Complex hypotheses

Simple-Predicts the r/ship(associative or casual) btw 2 variables i.e

1 independent and 1 dependent. E.g Patients receiving a warmed solution

for body cavity irrigation during surgical procedures [X] will maintain a higher
core body temperature[Y] than patients receiving a room temperature solution

Complex-Predicts a r/ship(associative or casual) among 3 or more

variables e.g x ,y & z {>1indpedent→>1dependent}

Among breast cancer survivors, emotional wellbeing [Y] is influenced

by the women’s self-esteem [X ], their resourcefulness [X ] and their
1 2

degree of social support

CONT
3. Non-directional Vs directional hypotheses.
Non-directional-States the existence of a R/ship but does
not predict the nature of the r/ship whether +ve or-ve.
e.g there is a relationship between the age of a patient
and the risk of falling
Directional-states the nature/direction of the R/ship btw 2
or more variables.
It uses terms like less, more, little, decrease increase
small, large etc.
It can be associative, casual, simple or complex e.g Older
patients are more at risk of experiencing a fall than
younger patients.
NB: All casual hypotheses are directional
 4. Null(H0) Vs research(H1 or Ha) hypotheses.

Null-also called statistical hypothesis.

Used for statistical testing and interpretation of

statistical outcomes.
Can be simple or complex; associative or casual.

States that there is no real r/ship or difference

existing between variables and any r/ship or difference

existing is due to chance or error.
Example of null hypothesis
1. There is no relationship between socio-demographic
factors, perception and the practice of Female Genital
Mutilation among the Pokot community.

2. There is no relationship between social demographic

factors and social economic factors and the prevalence of
cervical cancer.

3. There is no significant relationship between socio-

economic, cultural and technological factors and the rate
of caesarean section in Kakamega PGH
Cont’

Research(H1 or Ha)-Also called alternative

hypothesis to the null.

States that there is a R/ship or difference between

two or more variables.

It can be simple or complex; directional or non-

directional; associative or casual.

 VARIABLES
Variables are quality, properties or
characteristics of persons, things or
situation that change or vary.
For example: sex (male and female) age
(20–25, 26–30 years) academic success,
stress and pain.
Measurable characteristics that assume
different values among the subjects.
 Types of variables
• Independent Variable (Treatment /input/
– This is a variable that influences other variables.
– It is perceived as contributing to or enabling a particular outcome.
– It is the intervention or treatment that the researcher
performs/manipulates to see the resulting change in the dependant
variable.
– Example: The influence of strikes on Kenyan economy.
• Dependent Variable/outcome
– It reflects the outcome/ response to the independent variable.
– The dependent variable is the variable that appears, disappears,
diminishes or increases.
– Example: The effects of water treatment on cholera control
Extraneous Variables
These are uncontrolled variables that influence
the findings of the research study.
They influence both the dependent and
independent variables.
These are called threats to internal and external
validity of the study and may bias the selection,
the time factor, and the instrument used.
Types: Intervening, Antecedent, Suppressor and
Distorter variables.
Demographic Variables

These are demographic attributes.

 They are variables that cannot be manipulated

or influenced by the researcher.

For example, age, sex religious beliefs or

educational level.
RATIONALE/JUSTIFICATION AND SIGNIFICANCE
• This is the section of the study that outlines reasons for carrying out
the study.
Convince the reviewer of the importance of the proposal.

How will your research shed light on it?

What is new about your approach?

What are you going to contribute?

What “products” (results) will come of the proposed project?

What is the usefulness of the anticipated results(s) - rationale?

What is your paper going to add to the total sum of human knowledge
on this subject?
Cont’
What are you going to say about the problem that
nobody else has ever said before?
In general, why and how will this problem benefit
from being studied?
Who will benefit from this research?

• The significance of the study addresses questions like:

– How will the results be used?
– Who will benefit from the results?
– Is the study worth it?
Ct
It is important to state the justification

convincingly so as to rationalise the utilisation

of resources such as time, money materials
and manpower.
The rationale of the study should describe the

utility and importance of the problem in the

society in general
LITERATURE REVIEW
A critical summary of research on a topic of interest

generally prepared to put a research problem in context or to

identify gaps and weaknesses in pre-studies so as to justify a
new investigation.
It entails the systematic identification, location and analysis

of documents containing information related to the research

problem being investigated to generate a picture of what is
known and not known about it.
Cont’
Describe what you already know, and what questions
need to be answered to further our understanding:
 By identifying what needs to be answered, and why, you
establish the relevance, significance, and value of doing
the research.
What do we already know? What have others seen?
What is generally believed?
What questions remain unanswered?
What don’t we know, but need to know?
By the end of the Literature Review, the reader
should have a very good idea of what the central issue
of your proposal will be.
Purposes of literature review
Determine what has been done already as regards
the research problem under investigation.
Identify strategies, procedures and measuring
instruments that have been found useful in the
investigation of the research problem.
Help make the researcher familiar with previous
studies and thus facilitate the interpretation of the
study.
Help the researcher to narrow the research topic.
Help determine new approaches and stimulate
new ideas.
Problem statement
What is the problem that you want to solve?

State the nature of the problem you will address.

It is essential to define your research problem very

carefully, and to have some idea of why you have

chosen it.
You will state why the problem you want to research

on is important
 RESEARCH DESIGN
The overall plan for obtaining an answer to the research question or

for testing the research hypothesis.

Chosen based on :
 Available information (state of knowledge) about the problem.
 The nature of the problem and its environment.
 The availability of resources for the study.
 The skills and creativity of the researchers

NB. purpose of design

To provide answers to research questions

To control variance

Examples of research designs
Experimental Design: Experimental and Quasi-experimental.

Survey Design: Comparative and Correlation.

Descriptive Design: Descriptive and Explorative. Case Study Design

Assignments
1. Highlight advantages and disadvantages of experimental research
designs

2. Read more on the following designs

Case Study Design

Prospective and retrospective design
Design cont’

Clearly identify and label study design using standard

terminology:
Qualitative/quantitative

Intervention /observational

Cross-sectional/longitudinal

Prospective/retrospective

True experimental /quasi experimental

Etc
Design cont

• Must be consistent with objectives/hypothesis

• Must justify choice of the design:

• Appropriate to answer questions

• Lack of biasness-valid

• Precision/power

• Feasible

• ethical
STUDY POPULATION{SUBJECTS}

Def: Entire group of individuals, cases or events

having a common observable characteristic.

To achieve this, ask yourself the following questions:

1. Who will be studied?

2. How will they be recruited?

3. How will they be allocated to study groups?

 Pop cont’

Q. Who will be studied?

• Specify eligible subjects:
– Target population:-Refers to the number or subjects or the total

environment of interest to the researcher.

– Accessible population:-This is part of the target population that

the researcher can actually reach.

– Sample population:-This is part of the target or accessible that has

been procedurally chosen to represent it.

NB; Out line the inclusion/exclusion criteria

SAMPLING
How to select?
Sampling is the process of selecting a portion of the
population to represent the entire subjects since it is
almost impossible for a researcher to study all subjects.
Sampling techniques
The type of sampling method a researcher uses will
depend mainly on: (factors to consider when choosing
sampling technique)
1. type of research one intends to undertake,
2. methodology to be applied
3. time available for the tasks.
 Types of sampling
A) Probability;- Each element in the population has an equal
independent chance of being selected.
– Simple random sampling
– Stratified sampling
– Cluster sampling
– Systematic/interval sampling
B) Non-probability;-There is no equal opportunity given to all
subjects.
– Convenience/accidental sampling
– Purposive/judgmental sampling
– Snow ball sampling
– Quota sampling.
Note:
Sampling Frame: Sampling frame is a comprehensive list

of all the sampling elements in the target population

Sampling Bias: Sampling bias occurs when the researcher

has not carefully selected the samples that are expected to

represent the general target population.
Sampling Error: It is the degree of deviation of the

sample from the population from which it was drawn.

Sample size determination
Factors to consider:

o The purpose of the study

o The population size

o The risk of selecting a ‘bad sample’

o The sampling error allowed

 Sample size criteria
• Three criteria needed to determine the appropriate sample size:
1. The level of precision
2. The level of confidence or risk
3. The degree of variability in the attributes being measured.
LEVEL OF PRECISION{statistical significance/sampling error}
- Is the range in which the true value of the population is estimated
to be.
 Precision cont ’
How sure one is that the statistic is reliable, or a difference
or R/ship exist
Expressed in percentage {±1% to 10%}

THE CONFIDENCE LEVEL{Standard error/risk level}

The range of values in which the population mean is likely
to be contained within a given level of probability defined
by the standard errors of the sampling distribution.
Based on the Central Limit Theorem.
In a normal distribution curve, some samples have higher
values while others have lower values in relation to the
average population mean.
 THE DEGREE OF VARIABILITY
Represents the distribution of the attributes in the

population.
Expressed in percentage between 1 and 100%.

50% indicate the maximum variability in a population.

50% is therefore used most often in determining a more

conservative sample size especially where the population

with the attribute are not known.
STRATEGIES TO USE
Using a consensus for Small Populations

-Good for small population of 200 or less

Using a Sample Size of a Similar Study

Using Published Tables

Using Formulas. E.g. Fishers formula

Redundancy levels-data saturation

FOMULAE METHOD
Cochran formula
Fishers formula
In both,
• n0/n=desired sample size{pop>10000}
• Z=desired confidence level eg.95%
• P=degree of variability{50% max}
• q=1-p
• e/d=desired level of precision e.g.±5%
When population is less than
10,000

n=sample size nf=sample size

n0=sample in pop>10,000 n-=sample in >10,000
N=target /estimated popln N=estimated population
A simplified formula

• n=sample size
• N=population size
• e=level of precision
{Yamane (1967:886) }
 DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is ‘the precise, systematic gathering of

information relevant to the research purpose or the

specific objectives, questions or hypotheses of a study’
Data collection is one of the major steps of the research

process.
It is the data collection process that will determine the

findings of the entire research study. It, therefore, calls for

more attention and consideration.
DATA COLLECTION ct’
Tools/instruments
Structured/semi structured interview schedules.
Focused discussion guides.
Observational checklists.
Structured or standardized questionnaires.
Existing records.

Methods
Review of existing records
In-depth interviews(face to face or telephone)
Participatory or non-participatory observations
Focused group discussions
 Data Collection Plan
Before data is collected a plan is to be drawn to follow the
following steps
1) List the tasks that have to be carried out and the people
responsible for those tasks.
2) Make a rough estimate of the time needed for different
parts of the study.
3) Identify the most appropriate period in which to carry out
the research.
4) Schedule the different activities that have to be carried
out each week in a work plan
Importance of developing data collection plan
Have a clear overview of what tasks have to be carried out,

who should perform them and the duration of these tasks.

Organise both human and material resources for data

collection in the most efficient way and minimise errors

and delays that may result from lack of planning. 
Identify problems, for example, limited manpower, that

will require modifications to the proposal. Such

modification might include adjustment of the sample size
or extension of the data collection period.
 Data Collection Plan
Stage 1 - Permission to Proceed. Consent must be
obtained from the relevant authorities, individuals, and
the community in which the project is to be carried out
Stage 2 - Data Collection. consider logistics. This entails
identifying who will collect what, when and with what
resources and quality control.
It is important that the data collected is of good quality,
that is, reliable and valid. Therefore, the possible sources
of data distortion (bias) should be addressed
Stage 3 - Data Handling. Once the data has been
collected, a clear procedure should be developed for
handling and storing it.
Questionnaire (Tool for data collection)
A questionnaire is a set of standardised questions

designed to collect information about a specific

aspect
Before you design a questionnaire it is important to

know what information is needed to be collected

and how it will be used.
Qualities of good questionnaire
Has simple and specific questions.
Has short and precise questions.
Avoids use of abbreviations or jargon.
Avoids questions that are too demanding and time
consuming.
Avoids bias in questions. Biased questions influence
people to answer in a way that does not accurately
reflect their position
Avoids making assumptions.
Avoid double questions. E.g, ’Did the MCH talk help to
identify ways to improve the sanitation and nutrition of
your children?’
 Ct
Has clear wording. Words such as majority, older people,
regularly, might mean different things to different people
and so should be avoided.
Questions ask about simple common happenings.
Questions range from known to unknown and from
simple to complex.
All the questions should relate to the purpose of study.
Questions should not screen disease if no effective
treatment can be offered for the cases found or if the
condition is rare.
Type of question should either be open or closed-ended.
Types of Question
A questionnaire should be laid out in such a way

that it provides easy flow from one topic to another.

It should have both open- and closed-ended
questions.
They should be arranged in such a way that they

allow natural flow of discussion.

1. Open-ended Question
Is a type of question that allows the respondent to
provide their own answer.
It encourages the respondent to think and describe a
situation in their own words.
Open-ended questions are useful because they give
more information on:
 Facts and details which the researcher may not
be familiar with
Opinions, attitudes and suggestions

 Sensitive issues
 2. Closed-ended Question
These are questions that offer the respondents a list of

possible answers to choose from.

They are specific and useful when you are interested in

certain aspects of an issue.

Although they produce more uniform answers than open

ended questions, they depend upon our knowing and

including all the relevant answers in the list.
Points to Look for When Pre-testing a
Questionnaire
Does each question measure what it is intended to
measure?
Do respondents understand all the words?
Are questions interpreted similarly by all respondents?
Does each closed ended question have an answer that
applies to each respondent?
Does the questionnaire create a positive impression, one
that motivates people to answer it?
Does any part of the questionnaire suggest bias on the
part of the researcher?
Is the questionnaire too long?
 PILOT/PRE-TEST STUDY
 Defined as a small version of a proposed study conducted to
refine the methodology.
It is developed and conducted in a manner similar to the
proposed study, using similar research respondents and the
same setting.
 A pilot study may also be defined as ‘the process of carrying
out a preliminary study going through the entire research
procedure with a small sample’.
A pre-test usually refers to a small scale trial of a particular
research component.
 Reasons for doing a pilot study
• To determine whether the proposed study is feasible
• To Identify any problems with the research design
• To ensure that items in the data collection instrument are smart·
• To assess the time taken to administer the research instrument
• To determine whether the sample is representative of the
population
• To determine the effectiveness of the sampling technique used
• To give the researcher the real experience in the field
• to determine the human and financial resources requirement for
the study
• To determine the effectiveness of the training given to research
assistants where necessary
• To evaluate the procedure for data processing and analysis
DATA ANALYSIS
Entails the procedure for;

Recording,storing and reducing data

Assessing data quality
Statistical analysis
Step 1: Descriptive statistics
Describe the shape, central tendency and variability.

Looks at variables one at a time e.g. mean, range proportion etc

 Cont’
purposes
–Summarize important features of numerical data
–Pick-up data entry errors
–Characterize subjects
–Determine distribution of subjects
–Assess assumptions for statistical tests.

•Step 2:analytic /inferential stastistics

•Look at associations among variables
Purposes:-
– estimate pattern and strength of associations among variables.
– Test hypothesis.
CONT’
Common procedures used in inferential statistics
include:

 Correlation,

 Chi-square test,

 Regression,

 The analysis of variance(ANOVA),

 T-test etc
DATA PRESENTATION

a) Tables

b) Pie-charts

c) Bar-graphs

d) Histograms

e) Frequency polygons
Ethics in Nursing Research
Ethics is that branch of philosophy which deals with

one’s conduct and serves as a guide to one’s behaviour’

Research ethics fundamentally consist of collecting,

analysing and interpreting data in a way that respects

the rights of all participants and respondents.
A research should have deep concern for human welfare

and sensitivity for the rights of research subjects

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Ethical issue related to: Researcher,Subjects and Research
process.
Issues relating to Researchers-
Plagiarism- stealing somebody's work/idea: the process of
copying another person's idea or written work and claiming it as
original.
Fraud- crime of cheating obtaining benefits by deliberate depletion and claim
that is his original work
Misuse of privileges
Issues relating to subjects
3 basic principles viz;
1. Respect for persons
2. Justice
3. Beneficence
cont
[Link] of Respect for persons
• Individual autonomy
– Acceptance or declination

– Freedom to withdraw

– Freedom to withhold information

– Freedom to seek clarifications

• Individuals with diminished autonomy

– Children, mentally ill, unconscious,institutionalized

– Always seek consent from their legal guardians

cont

2. Principe of justice

– Right to privacy

– Right to anonymity

– Right to confidentiality

[Link] of Beneficence

– Do good

– Do not harm(non-maleficence)
Issues cont

Issues relating to research process

Scientific validity

Issues in experimental designs

Use of tests

Ignoring pertinent issues in research

Informed consent
Decision by the respondent to or not to take part in the
study full understanding of the research and all related
issues.
Components of informed consent form:
 Identification of researcher /institution
 Type of research and purpose
 Selection of subjects
 Voluntary participation
 Any foreseen risks to person, job…….
 A guarantee of anonymity and confidentiality
Cont’

 What is expected of the respondent/subject

 Benefits if any(direct and indirect)

 Compensation or lack of

 Opportunity to seek clarifications and ask questions

 Confirmation by subject

 Confirmation by researcher/interviewer.
 COMMUNICATING THE RESEARCH
FINDINGS

Ways of disseminating:
i. A written report for academic purposes,(a dissertation or a
theses which are a requirement for academic reasons)
ii. A written report prepared for managers and policy
implementers .
iii. A written report sent as an article for publication in refereed
journals.
[Link] of the research findings in workshops, seminars
and conferences
Report writing
Contents
• The Title
– should be an accurate reflection of the research carried
out
– needs to be both meaningful and brief
– It should not exceed fifteen words
• Abstract
– is a very brief summary of the study that includes:
– the purpose of the study,
– methodology
– major research findings.
– should not be longer than one page.
 Cont’

Introduction
– Introduce the reader to the problem to be dealt with.

– Briefly, but clearly, explain the purpose of the study.

– Emphasize the importance of the study.

– Introduce the key concepts.

– State clearly the hypothesis as well as the objectives or

research questions of the study.
– Describe the nature of the research study and the context
within which the study has been carried out
 Cont’
Background Information
explain where the study took place and expound on any
special circumstances of the study and study area.

Literature Review
The literature review provides an overview of
current knowledge of the problem under research.
The researcher should be able to show a grasp of the
theory applications and apply the knowledge to the
research.
 THE METHODOLOGY

• The methods section incorporates the following aspects:

(i) Subjects, respondents or participants
(ii) The task and the material or instruments used.
(iii) The research design and strategy. :
– Specify the chosen design.
– Outline and explain choices which lay behind strategy decisions.
– Give an account of the methods used to analyze data.
– If a statistical design was used, discuss the statistical tests applied.
– Explain procedures for handling missing data.
– Justify the validity and reliability of the scores.
– Outline the reasons why specific statistical tests were used
 Cont’

RESULTS
• Involves the following:
-The main results from the data analysis.
– If a quantitative study was done, tables, graphs and diagrams
and the outcomes of statistical tests. In a qualitative study,
findings are usually presented in terms of the themes, which
emerged from the data and, by way of substantiation and
– illustration, examples of raw data will be given. For example,
direct quotes from an interview transcription, or accounts of
observation.
– In quantitative studies you must also give the name of any
statistical test used as well as the value of the calculated
statistics and its significance.
– Accuracy and conciseness must be adhered to throughout.
 DISCUSSION

 The discussion of the study incorporates the following

elements:
An interpretation of the findings, with specific reference to
validity and reliability.
A well developed discussion makes sense of the research results,
and must be presented in precise and concise language.
Generalizations of the research findings.
Indicate whether you found what you had expected and how the
present results relate to previous research
CONT’

• Conclusions related to questions raised in the introduction

of the study.

• Suggestions and recommendations.

– Here you have to relate your findings to the questions raised

in the introduction

– You may also give some suggestions concerning further

research
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Present your references and bibliography in the standard
manner.
• Follow any format. However, you need to remember that
all your entries should be made in a consistent manner.
• Check that the names of authors included in your
reference list, are actually mentioned within the text.
 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

• These are measures of the relevance and correctness of research

findings.
Reliability-
• A measure of the degree to which research instruments yield
consistent results after repeated trials/administration.
• Reliability is highly influenced by presence/absence of random
errors.
• Methods of assessing reliability of data:
 Test-retest technique-administering the same tool twice to the same
group of subjects.
 Equivalent form technique-use of two equivalent instruments
designed to measure the same concept.
Reliability cont’

 Split-halt technique-dividing the instrument into two

parts and correlating the subject’s scores from the two
parts.
 Internal consistency technique-correlates scores from a
single item with scores from other items in the tool.

Validity:-
• Degree to which research findings/results represent the
phenomenon under study.
• Validity is highly influenced by presence or absence of
systematic errors.
 Cont’
Techniques of ensuring validity: Construct,Content,Criterion
related, Concurrent & Face validity.

TYPES OF VALIDITY
[Link] validity-
Where the changes on dependent variables are accurately attributed
to the independent variables.
Influenced by control of extraneous variables.
[Link] validity-
Degree to which study findings can be generalized to populations
and environments outside the experimental setting.
Threats to internal validity
i. History

ii. Maturation

iii. Instrumentation

iv. Pre-testing

v. Statistical regression

vi. Attrition

vii. Differential selection

viii. Selection maturation interaction

Threats to external validity
i. Accessible and target populations

ii. Control of extraneous variables

iii. Pre-test treatment interaction

iv. Explicit description of the variables

v. Non randomness of the sample

vi. Multi-treatment interference

EFFECT RELATED TO THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1. The Halo effect: is the tendency of observers to be influenced by
one characteristic in judging others

2. The Placebo effect

3. The Pygmalion effect

4. The Hawthorne effect: effects on dependent variable resulting

from subjects awareness that they are participants under study

5. The John Henry effect

 BIAS
Any trend in the collection, analysis, interpretation,
publication or review of data that can lead to conclusions which
are systematically different from the truth.
Types:
1. Selected bias
2. Information bias
Selected bias-Occurs when the subjects studied are not a
representation of the target population from which the
conclusions are to be made.
 Bias ‘cont

• Include:
-Migration bias -Response bias
-Membership bias -Prevalence incidence bias
-Berksonian(admission rate) bias
Information bias-Occurs when the information obtained differ
qualitatively.
Include;
-Interviewer bias -Recall bias
-Surveillance bias -Loss of follow-up bias
-Observer bias -Diagnostic suspicion bias
-Misclassification bias
Reference

1. Basavanthappa, BT 2007,Nursing Research; 2nd Ed, Jaypee Medical

Publishers, New Delhi India.
2. Denise, FP and Cheryl,TB 2009,Essentials of Nursing Research:
Appraising Evidence of Nursing Practice;7th Ed, Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins, USA.
3. Denise, FP and Cheryl,TB 2003,Nursing Research; Principles and
Methods,7th Ed, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins,USA.
4. Mugenda,OM and Mugenda, AG 2003,Research Methods; ACTS
Press, Nairobi Kenya.