Cryptography and Network Security
Chapter 1
Introduction
Background
Information Security requirements have changed in
recent times
traditionally provided by physical and administrative
mechanisms
computer use requires automated tools to protect files
and other stored information
use of networks and communications links requires
measures to protect data during transmission
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Definitions
Computer Security - generic name for the collection
of tools designed to protect data and to thwart hackers
Network Security - measures to protect data during
their transmission
Internet Security - measures to protect data during
their transmission over a collection of interconnected
networks
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Aim of Course
our focus is on Internet Security
which consists of measures to deter, prevent, detect, and
correct security violations that involve the transmission &
storage of information
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Security Trends
CERT:
Computer
Emergency
Response Team
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OSI Security Architecture
ITU-T X.800 “Security Architecture for OSI”
defines a systematic way of defining and providing security
requirements
for us it provides a useful, if abstract, overview of concepts
we will study
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Aspects of Security
security attack: Any action that compromises the security
of information owned by an organization.
security mechanism: A process that is designed to detect,
prevent, or recover from a security attack.
security service: A processing or communication service
that enhances the security of the data processing systems and
the information transfers of an organization. The services are
intended to counter security attacks, and they make use of
one or more security mechanisms to provide the service.
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Security Attack
any action that compromises the security of
information owned by an organization
information security is about how to prevent attacks,
or failing that, to detect attacks on information-based
systems
often threat & attack used to mean same thing
have a wide range of attacks
can focus of generic types of attacks
passive
active
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Passive Attacks
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Active Attacks
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Active Attacks
Masquerade: when one entity pretends to be a
different entity.
Replay: involves passive capture of the data unit
and its subsequent retransmission to produce an
unauthorized effect.
Modification of messages: capture message and
modify the content and then send.
Denial of service:
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Active attacks present the opposite characteristics of
passive attacks. Whereas passive attacks are difficult to
detect, measures are available to prevent their success.
On the other hand, it is quite difficult to prevent active
attacks absolutely, because of the wide variety of
potential physical, software and network
vulnerabilities. Instead, the goal is to detect active
attacks and to recover from any disruption or delays
caused by them.
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Security Service
enhance security of data processing systems and information
transfers of an organization
intended to counter security attacks
using one or more security mechanisms
often replicates functions normally associated with physical
documents
which, for example, have signatures, dates; need protection from
disclosure, tampering, or destruction; be notarized or witnessed; be
recorded or licensed
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Security Services
X.800:
“a service provided by a protocol layer of communicating open
systems, which ensures adequate security of the systems or
of data transfers”
RFC 2828:
“a processing or communication service provided by a system
to give a specific kind of protection to system resources”
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Security Services (X.800)
Authentication - assurance that the communicating
entity is the one claimed
1. Peer Entity Authentication
2. Data Origin Authentication
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Security Services (X.800)
Access Control – The prevention of unauthorized use of a
resource (i.e., this service controls who can have access to a
resource, under what conditions access can occur, and what
those accessing the resource are allowed to do).
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Security Services (X.800)
Data Confidentiality – protection of data from
unauthorized disclosure
1. Connection Confidentiality
2. Connectionless Confidentiality
3. Selective-Field Confidentiality
4. Traffic Flow Confidentiality
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Security Services
Data Integrity (X.800)
- assurance that data received is as sent by
an authorized entity
Connection integrity with recovery
Connection integrity without recovery
Selective-field connection integrity
Connectionless integrity
Selective – field connectionless integrity
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Security Services (X.800)
Non-Repudiation - protection against denial by
one of the parties in a communication
Nonrepudiation, Origin
Nonrepudiation, Destination
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Security Mechanism
feature designed to detect, prevent, or recover from a
security attack
no single mechanism that will support all services
required
however one particular element underlies many of the
security mechanisms in use:
cryptographic techniques
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Security Mechanisms (X.800)
specific security mechanisms:
encipherment, digital signatures, access controls,
data integrity, authentication exchange, traffic
padding, routing control, notarization
pervasive security mechanisms:
trusted functionality, security labels, event
detection, security audit trails, security recovery
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Model for Network Security
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Model for Network Security
using this model requires us to:
1. design a suitable algorithm for the security
transformation
2. generate the secret information (keys) used by
the algorithm
3. develop methods to distribute and share the
secret information
4. specify a protocol enabling the principals to use
the transformation and secret information for a
security service
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Model for Network Access Security
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24 Panjab University Chandigarh
Model for Network Access Security
using this model requires us to:
1. select appropriate gatekeeper functions to identify
users
2. implement security controls to ensure only authorised
users access designated information or resources
trusted computer systems may be useful to help
implement this model
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Summary
have considered:
definitions for:
computer, network, internet security
X.800 standard
security attacks, services, mechanisms
models for network (access) security
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Cryptography and Network Security
Chapter 2
Classical Encryption Techniques
Symmetric Encryption
or conventional / private-key / single-key
sender and recipient share a common key
all classical encryption algorithms are private-key
was only type prior to invention of public-key in
1970’s
and by far most widely used
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Some Basic Terminology
plaintext - original message
ciphertext - coded message
cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
decipher (decrypt) - recovering ciphertext from plaintext
cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods
cryptanalysis (codebreaking) - study of principles/ methods of
deciphering ciphertext without knowing key
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cryptology
29 - field of both cryptography and cryptanalysis
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Symmetric Cipher Model
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Requirements
two requirements for secure use of symmetric
encryption:
a strong encryption algorithm
a secret key known only to sender / receiver
mathematically have:
Y = EK(X)
X = DK(Y)
assume encryption algorithm is known
implies a secure channel to distribute key
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Cryptography
characterize cryptographic system by:
type of encryption operations used
substitution / transposition / product
number of keys used
single-key or private / two-key or public
way in which plaintext is processed
block / stream
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Cryptanalysis
objective to recover key not just message
general approaches:
cryptanalytic attack: rely on the nature of the algorithm plus
perhaps some knowledge of the general characteristics of the
plaintext or even some sample plaintext-ciphertext pairs.
brute-force attack: try every possible key on a piece of
ciphertext until an intelligible translation into plaintext is
obtained. On average, half of all possible keys must be tried
to achieve success.
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Cryptanalytic Attacks
ciphertext only
only know algorithm & ciphertext
known plaintext
Know algorithm, ciphertext & plaintext-ciphertext pair.
chosen plaintext
Know algorithm, ciphertext and select plaintext and obtain
ciphertext.
chosen ciphertext
Know algorithm, ciphertext and select ciphertext and obtain
plaintext.
chosen text
Know algorithm, ciphertext and select plaintext or ciphertext to
en/decrypt.
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An algorithm should have
unconditional security
no matter how much computer power or time is available,
the cipher cannot be broken since the ciphertext provides
insufficient information to uniquely determine the
corresponding plaintext
computational security
The cost of breaking the cipher exceeds the value of the
encrypted information.
The time required to break the cipher exceeds the useful
lifetime of the information.
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Substitution Techniques
where letters of plaintext are replaced by other letters
or by numbers or symbols
or if plaintext is viewed as a sequence of bits, then
substitution involves replacing plaintext bit patterns
with ciphertext bit patterns
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Caesar Cipher
earliest known substitution cipher
by Julius Caesar
first attested use in military affairs
replaces each letter by 3rd letter on
example:
meet me after the toga party
PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD SDUWB
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Caesar Cipher
can define transformation as:
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABC
mathematically give each letter a number
abcdefghij k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
then have Caesar cipher as:
c = E(p) = (p + k) mod (26) i.e. K = 3
p = D(c) = (c – k) mod (26)
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Cryptanalysis of Caesar Cipher
only have 26 possible ciphers
A maps to A,B,..Z
could simply try each in turn
a brute force search
given ciphertext, just try all shifts of letters
do need to recognize when have plaintext
eg. break ciphertext "GCUA VQ DTGCM"
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Monoalphabetic Cipher
rather than just shifting the alphabet
could shuffle (jumble) the letters arbitrarily
each plaintext letter maps to a different random
ciphertext letter
hence key is 26 letters long
Plain: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Cipher: DKVQFIBJWPESCXHTMYAUOLRGZN
Plaintext: ifwewishtoreplaceletters
Ciphertext: WIRFRWAJUHYFTSDVFSFUUFYA
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Monoalphabetic Cipher Security
now have a total of 26! keys
with so many keys, might think is secure
but would be !!!WRONG!!!
problem is language characteristics
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Language Redundancy and
Cryptanalysis
human languages are redundant
letters are not equally commonly used
in English E is by far the most common letter
followed by T,R,N,I,O,A,S
other letters like Z,J,K,Q,X are fairly rare
have tables of single, double & triple letter
frequencies for various languages
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English Letter Frequencies
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Playfair Cipher
not even the large number of keys in a
monoalphabetic cipher provides security
one approach to improving security was to encrypt
multiple letters
the Playfair Cipher is an example
invented by Charles Wheatstone in 1854, but named
after his friend Baron Playfair
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Playfair Key Matrix
a 5X5 matrix of letters based on a keyword
fill in letters of keyword (sans duplicates)
fill rest of matrix with other letters
eg. using the keyword MONARCHY
M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z
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Encrypting and Decrypting
plaintext is encrypted two letters at a time
1. if a pair is a repeated letter, insert filler like 'X’
2. if both letters fall in the same row, replace each with letter
to right(wrapping back to start from end)
3. if both letters fall in the same column, replace each with the
letter below it (again wrapping to top from bottom)
4. otherwise each letter is replaced by the letter in the same
row and in the column of the other letter of the pair
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Polyalphabetic Ciphers
polyalphabetic substitution ciphers
improve security using multiple cipher alphabets
make cryptanalysis harder with more alphabets to
guess and flatter frequency distribution
use a key to select which alphabet is used for each
letter of the message
use each alphabet in turn
repeat from start after end of key is reached
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Polyalphabetic Ciphers
A set of related monoalphabetic substitution rules is
used.
A key determines which particular rule is chosen for a
given transformation
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Vigenère Cipher
simplest polyalphabetic substitution cipher
effectively multiple caesar ciphers
key is multiple letters long K = k1 k2 ... kd
ith letter specifies ith alphabet to use
use each alphabet in turn
repeat from start after d letters in message
decryption simply works in reverse
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Example of Vigenère Cipher
write the plaintext out
write the keyword repeated above it
use each key letter as a caesar cipher key
encrypt the corresponding plaintext letter
eg using keyword deceptive
key: deceptivedeceptivedeceptive
plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself
ciphertext:ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ
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One-Time Pad
if a truly random key as long as the message is used,
the cipher will be secure
called a One-Time pad
is unbreakable since ciphertext bears no statistical
relationship to the plaintext
since for any plaintext & any ciphertext there exists
a key mapping one to other
can only use the key once though problems in
generation & safe distribution of key
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Transposition Techniques
now consider classical transposition or permutation
ciphers
these hide the message by rearranging the letter order
without altering the actual letters used
can recognise these since have the same frequency
distribution as the original text
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Rail Fence cipher
write message letters out diagonally over a number
of rows
then read off cipher row by row
eg. write message out as:
m e m a t r h t g p r y
e t e f e t e o a a t
giving ciphertext
MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
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Row Transposition Ciphers
a more complex transposition
write letters of message out in rows over a specified
number of columns
then reorder the columns according to some key before
reading off the rows
Key: 4312567
Plaintext: a t tackp
os tpone
du nt i l t
woamxyz
Ciphertext: TTNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ
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Product Ciphers
ciphers using substitutions or transpositions are
not secure because of language characteristics
hence consider using several ciphers in succession
to make harder, but:
two substitutions make a more complex substitution
two transpositions make more complex transposition
but a substitution followed by a transposition makes a
new much harder cipher
this is bridge from classical to modern ciphers
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Summary
have considered:
classical cipher techniques and terminology
monoalphabetic substitution ciphers
cryptanalysis using letter frequencies
Playfair cipher
polyalphabetic ciphers
transposition ciphers
product
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