INTRODUCTION TO
RT 304
RADIOLOGIC Geraldine A.
Langamon, RRT
PATHOLOGY
OBJECTIVES
To familiarized the structural and functional
component of the body.
Application of appropriate directional terms and
body planes for better understanding and
communication among the healthcare providers in
practice.
Define common terminologies in Pathology.
BODY CAVITIES
Ventral Cavities Dorsal Cavities
Thoracic/Chest Cavity Cranial Cavity
Right and left pleural Vertebral Cavity
cavity
Mediastinum
Abdominopelvic
Cavity
Abdominal Cavity
(upper)
Pelvic Cavity (lower)
BODY CAVITIES
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Superior – toward the head; upper; above
Inferior – toward the feet; lower; below
Ex: The glabella is located superior to the nose,
whereas the mouth is located inferior to it.
Anterior – front; in front of
Posterior – back; in back of
Ex: The nose is on the anterior surface of the body,
and the shoulder blades are on its posterior surface.
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Medial – toward the midline of the body
Lateral – toward the side of the body
Ex: The heart lies medial to the lungs, and the lungs lie
lateral to the heart.
Proximal – toward or nearest the trunk of the body
or nearest to the point of origin of one of its parts
Distal – away from or farthest from the trunk or
the point of origin of a body part
Ex: The elbow lies at the proximal end of the lower arm,
whereas the hand lies at its distal end.
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Superficial – nearer the surface
Deep – farther away from the body
surface
Ex: The skin of the arm is superficial to the
muscles, and the bone is deep to the muscles
that surround and cover it.
BODY PLANES
GENERAL RT 304
TERMINOLOGIES
PATHOLOGY MENU
1. Disease 8. Ischemia
2. Pathology 9. Infarct
3. Pathogenesis 10. Hemorrhage
4. Inflammation 11. Aplasia
5. Inflammatory 12. Atrophy
Reactions 13. Hypertrophy
6. Edema 14. Neoplasm
7. Abnormal Fluids
DISEASE
Disease is a term that literally refers to a lack of
“ease.”
It is a condition that is marked by an abnormal
disturbance in the function and or structure of the
human body as a result of some type of injury or
trauma.
PATHOLOGY
The study of disease and how it impacts the human
body.
The following is a list of sources for pathology:
oHereditary or Congenital
oTumors
oIatrogenic
o Any adverse conditions that results from medical treatment.
o An example would be a pneumothorax that occurs as the result
of a thoracentesis.
oInfections
o A nosocomial infection is acquired from a health care
environment.
PATHOGENESIS
The study of the origin and development of a
disease.
Pathogenesis will lead to observable changes
that are known as manifestations.
oSign
o This is a manifestation that is observable by the health care
worker.
o Examples would be swelling or a skin rash.
oSymptom
o This pertains to the patient’s perception of what is wrong and
is subjective.
o An example would be a headache.
PATHOGENESIS
o Syndrome
oThis is a group of signs and symptoms that
characterize an abnormal disturbance.
oAn example would be Marfan’s Syndrome.
oThis is a genetic disorder of connective tissue
oIt is characterized by a predisposition to cardiac
disorders, long limbs, long fingers, and a tall stature.
oAbraham Lincoln had Marfan’s Syndrome.
o Etiology
oThis is the study of the cause and origin of a disease.
PATHOGENESIS
o Idiopathic
oThis refers to the fact that there may be no real
cause for the disease.
oExamples would be hypertension and a spontaneous
pneumothorax.
o Prognosis
oDescribes the expected patient outcome
o Example: Stage I cancer is treatable and have a good
chance of recovery.
CONGENITAL AND HEREDITARY DISEASE
Congenital Disease
Diseases present at birth and resulting from genetic or
environmental factors.
Down syndrome
Hereditary Disease
Diseases are caused by developmental disorders
genetically transmitted from either parent to a child
through abnormalities of individual genes in
chromosomes and are derived from ancestors.
Haemophilia
INFLAMMATION
Inflammation refers to the body’s ability to wall-off and
sequester an injurious agent.
The ultimate goal of this process is the safe removal of
said injurious agents.
Hyperemia is the process of dilating capillaries to
allow fluids and leucocytes to infiltrate the infected
area.
The leucocytes will act to remove cellular debris
through a process known as phagocytosis.
The cardinal signs of inflammation include heat
(results from hyperemia), redness, and pain.
INFLAMMATORY REACTIONS
Abscess
This type of inflammatory reaction causes the injurious agent to
become a walled-off ball of pus.
Antibiotics cannot penetrate an abscess since they do not contain
a blood supply like a neoplasm.
As a result, an abscess must be aspirated with a needle and
drained.
Ulcers
This is another type of inflammatory reaction that is the result of
a healing wound that is located on the skin or a mucous
membrane
INFLAMMATORY REACTION
Cellulitis
This is an acute bacterial infection of the skin and is a third
example of an inflammatory reaction.
It can be found anywhere in the body but it is more often seen
in areas where the skin can be damaged and thus allow a
portal of entry for bacteria.
A byproduct of bacterial reproduction within the tissue is the
excretion of methane. This can sometimes be demonstrated on
a radiograph as depicted on the next slide .
EDEMA
This is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in body
cavities or intercellular spaces.
The increase in fluid can be localized within a
structure or dispersed throughout the body.
An example of a localized edema would be ascites
which is essentially edema of the peritoneal cavity.
Generalized edema can be caused by congestive
heart failure
ASCITES
ABNORMAL FLUIDS
Transudates
This abnormal, extracellular fluid essentially consists of water
that contains a low cell count.
As a result, they are usually clear.
A good example would be a pleural effusion.
Exudates
This fluid filters from the circulatory system into lesions and
generally contains water, pus, and/or blood.
Since exudates contain infected fluid (pus/bacteria), they are
therefore not clear.
ABNORMAL FLUIDS
Pleural effusion
results when excess fluid collects in pleural cavity.
Pleural effusion (exudates)
It may be caused by inflammation, as in pleurisy, a pulmonary
embolism, or a neoplasm.
Pleural effusion (transudates)
Resulted from microvascular changes such as those associated
with heart failure or ascites.
A pleural effusion containing blood is hemothorax and
mostly caused by trauma.
ISCHEMIA
This term refers to an obstruction of the normal blood
flow to an organ or structure.
It usually results from either a narrowing of blood
vessels from plaque formation (fatty cholesterol
deposits) or as the result of a thrombotic occlusion.
As humans age, primary blood vessels into an organ
may become stenotic due to plaque formation within
their lumen.
As a response to this gradual change, secondary blood
vessels may enlarge and play an increasingly important
role in that organ’s blood supply.
This process is called collateral circulation and it is the
body’s natural defense against ischemia.
INFARCT
Loss of blood supply to an organ or structure will
cause the surrounding tissue to become necrotic.
This process is referred to as an infarct.
The following is a list of diseases that are either
caused by an infarct or may result in an infarct:
Myocardial Infarction (Heart Attack)
Pulmonary Embolus
Cerebrovascular Accident (Stroke)
HEMORRHAGE
Hemorrhage or bleeding is simply the loss of blood
from the circulatory system.
The following is a list of a few examples of a
hemorrhage:
Hematoma
This occurs as the result of a break in a blood vessel that
causes a pooling of blood below the surface of the skin,
organ, or structure.
Ecchymosis
This is a type of hematoma that is commonly referred to as a
bruise or contusion.
Capillaries below the skin are damaged usually as the result
of some type of trauma.
HEMORRHAGE
Purpura
These are red or purple spots on the body that are caused by a
hemorrhage.
They are often the result of some type of platelet or
coagulation disorder.
Petechiae
This is a type of purpura that consists of very small red or
purple spot on the body.
HEMORRHAGE
APLASIA
This is the inability of an organ or structure to form
properly.
The defective development of an organ can result in
the partial or complete loss of an organ.
Ex: Lung aplasia
LEFT LUNG APLASIA
ATROPHY
Atrophy is the decrease in size of the cells
within an organ or structure.
The following is a list of some of the common
causes of atrophy:
Lack of Physical Activity
Poor Nourishment
Nerve Damage
Poor Circulation
HYPERTROPHY
This is the opposite of atrophy in that there is an
abnormal increase in cell size.
This condition is also sometimes referred to as
hyperplasia or hypergenesis.
The following is a list of some of the common causes
of hypertrophy:
An Increase in Physical Activity
Hormonal Changes
Chronic Inflammation
NEOPLASM
This is the abnormal proliferation of foreign cells
that form a mass of tissue within an organ or
structure.
A neoplasm will compete for nutrients from the cells
that normally comprise the host organ and it is often
referred to as a mass or tumor.
Oncology is the study of neoplasms.
A benign neoplasm is one that is self-limited and will
not spread or seed to distant sites within the host
organism.
NEOPLASM
A malignant neoplasm (cancer), on the other hand,
does possess the ability to spread to distant sites in
the body.
This type of tumor will seed by employing either the
lymphatic system (primary method) or by using the
circulatory system (hematogenous spread).
Cachexia
If left untreated or undetected, malignant neoplasms will
ultimately result in this condition.
It is characterized by fatigue, atrophy, weakness, and
anorexia.
Cachexia is often seen as an end-stage to cancer.
NEOPLASM
Cancer treatment varies according to the type of
cancer that is diagnosed and what stage it is in.
The three primary methods of treating malignancies
are as follows:
1. Surgery
2. Chemotherapy
3. Radiation Therapy
In some instances, a combination of these treatments
may be indicated.
4 MAJOR CANCER CATEGORIES
1. Carcinoma/Adenocarcinoma
This type of cancer will arise from epithelial cells or tissues such as the
breast, colon, or pancreas.
2. Sarcoma
Relatively rare but highly malignant.
This is cancer of soft tissue or connective tissue such as bone, cartilage,
muscle, and fat.
3. Leukemia
This is cancer of the blood and blood forming tissues.
Acute leukemia is characterized by an abnormal proliferation of
immature blood cells that do not possess the ability to fight infection.
Chronic leukemia is characterized by an abnormal proliferation of
mature blood cells that do not possess the ability to fight infection.
4 MAJOR CANCER CATEGORIES
4 . Lymphoma
This type of cancer originates in lymphatic tissues and
affects the production of lymphocytes (white blood
cells).
2 major categories:
Non Hodgkin’s Lymphoma (NHL)
Hodgkin’s Lymphoma/Disease
2 CATEGORIES OF LYMPHOMA
Non Hodgkin’s Lymphoma (NHL)
This is the most common type of lymphoma and it is found in the
spleen, liver, bone marrow, lymph nodes, and GI tract.
NHLs are a diverse group of diseases that can develop in any
organ that is associated with the lymphatic system and has an
unknown etiology.
Hodgkin’s Lymphoma/Disease
This type of cancer is also associated with lymphatic tissue and it was
first describe by Thomas Hodgkin in 1832.
This cancer is characterized by the lymph nodes becoming swollen and
rubbery yet they remain pain free.
It is definitively diagnosed via lymph node biopsy and finding the
presence of Reed-Sternberg Cells.
Hodgkin’s disease has an unknown etiology.