Microelectronics I

Chapter 5: Carrier Transport

Phenomena

Transport; the process by which charged particles (electrons

and holes) move
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Understanding of electrical properties ( I-V characteristics)

Basic current equation;

I ∝ e⋅ µ ⋅ n⋅ E
e; electronic charged (constant, 1.6 x 10-19 C)
u; mobility ( figure of merit that reflect the speed)
n; carrier concentration
E; Electric field

Carrier concentration (electron, no and hole, po)

Chapter 4

Carrier transport (current)

 This chapter
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Carrier Transport

“Drift” “Diffusion”
The movement of carrier due The flow of carrier due to density
to electric field (E) gradients (dn/dx)

electron divider
E
+ -

electron

V
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5.1 Carrier Drift

Drift current density

Consider a positively charged hole,

When electric field, E, is applied, the hole accelerates

F = m*p a = eE
m*p; effective mass of hole, a; acceleration, e; electronic charge

However, hole collides with ionized impurity atoms and with thermally vibrating
lattice atom
Lattice atom

hole
E
Ionized impurity atom
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Lattice atom

hole
E
Ionized impurity atom

Gain average drift velocity, vdp

Holes accelerates
due to E vdp = µ p E

µp; Hole mobility (unit; cm2/Vs)

Involves in collision
(“Scattering Process”) Describes how well a carrier move due to E
 Loses most of energy
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Drift current density, Jdrf (unit; A/cm2) due to hole

J p|drf = epvdp
J p|drf = eµ p pE

Drift current density due to electron

J n|drf = eµ n nE

Total drift current;

J drf = e( µ n n + µ p p ) E

The sum of the individual electron and hole drift current densities
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Mobility is important parameter to determine the conductivity of material

Mobility effects

eτ cp eτ cn
µp = µn =
m*p mn*

τ; mean time between collisions

If τ=10-15 s, in average, every 10-15 s, carrier involves in collision @ scattering

Two dominant scattering mechanism

[Link] or lattice scattering

[Link] scattering
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1. Lattice scattering or phonon scattering

At temperature, T > 0 K, atoms randomly vibrate. This thermal vibrations cause a

disruption of the periodic potential function. This resulting in an interaction
between carrier and the vibrating lattice atoms.

Mobility due to lattice scattering, µL

µ L ∝ T −3 / 2

As temperature decreases, the probability of a scattering event decreases. Thus,

mobility increases
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electron hole
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2. Ionized Ion scattering

Coulomb interaction between carriers and ionized impurities produces scattering

or collusion. This alter the velocity characteristics of the carriers.

Mobility due to ionized ion scattering, µI

T 3/ 2
µL ∝
NI Total ionized impurity concentration

If temperature increases, the random thermal velocity of a carrier increases,

reducing the time the carrier spends in the vicinity of the ionized impurity center.
This causes the scattering effect decreases and mobility increases.
If the number of ionized impurity centers increases, then the probability of a
carrier encountering an ionized impurity centers increases, thus reducing
mobility
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The net mobility is given by

1 1 1
= +
µ µL µI

Due to phonon scattering Due to ionized ion scattering

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Conductivity

Drift current
electron
J drf = e( µ n n + µ p p) E = σE
hole
σ; conductivity [(Ω.cm)-1 ]

σ = e( µ n n + µ p p )
Function of electron and hole concentrations and mobolities

Ρ; resistivity [Ω.cm]

1 1
ρ= =
σ e( µ n n + µ p p )
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Bar of semiconductor

L I
+
- V

Area, A

I V
Current density, J = Electric field, E =
A L

J = σE
Resistance, R is a function of resistivity, or
I V conductivity, as well as the geometry of the
=σ semiconductor
A L
 L   ρL 
V =  I =   I = IR
 σA   A 
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Consider p-type semiconductor with an acceptor doping Na (Nd=0) in which Na>>ni

σ = e( µ n n + µ p p ) ≈ eµ n p
Assume complete ionization
1
σ ≈ eµ n N a ≈
ρ

Function of the majority carrier

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ex.;
Consider compensated n-type Silicon at T=300 K with a conductivity of σ=16
(Ωcm)-1 and an acceptor doping concentration of 1017 cm-3 . Determine the donor
concentration and the electron mobility.

Solution;

At T=300 K, we can assume complete ionization. (Nd-Na >>ni)

σ ≈ eµ n n = eµ n ( N d − N a )
16 = (1.6 × 10 −19 ) µ n ( N d − 1017 )

To determine µn and Nd, we can use figure mobility vs. impurity concentration
with trial and error
10 20 = µ n ( N d − 1017 )
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If Nd=2 x 1017 cm-3 , impurity

concentration, NI= Nd++Na-=3 x 1017
cm-3 . from the figure, µn= 510
cm2/Vs. so σ=8.16 (Ωcm)-1 .

If Nd=5 x 1017 cm-3 , impurity

concentration, NI= Nd++Na-=6x 1017
cm-3 . from the figure, µn= 325
cm2/Vs. so σ=20.8 (Ωcm)-1 .
Nd should be between 2 x 1017 and 5 x
1017 cm-3 . after trial and error.

Nd= 3.5 x 1017 cm-3

µn=400 cm2/Vs
σ= 16 (Ωcm)-1
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Ex 2.; designing a semiconductor resistor with a specified resistance to

handle a given current density

A Si semiconductor at T=300 K is initially doped with donors at a concentration of

Nd=5 x 1015 cm-3 . Acceptors are to be added to form a compensated p-type
material. The resistor is to have a resistance of 10 kΩ and handle a current
density of 50 A/cm2 when 5 V is applied.

Solution;

When 5 V is applied to 10 kΩ resistor, the current, I

V 5
I= = 4 = 0.5mA
R 10
If the current density, J is limited to 50 A/cm2, the cross-sectional area, A is

I 0.5 ×10 −3
A= = = 10 −5 cm 2
J 50
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Consider that electric field, E is limited to 100 V/cm. Then the length of the
resistor, L is
V 5
L= = = 5 × 10 − 2 cm
E 100
The conductivity, σ of the semiconductor is

L 5 × 10 −2
σ= = 4 = 0 .5( Ωcm ) −1

RA 10 × 10 −5
The conductivity of the compensated p-type semiconductor is

σ ≈ eµ p p = eµ p ( N a − N d )

Here, the mobility is function of total ionized impurity concentration Na+Nd

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Using trial and error, if Na=1.25x1016 cm-3 , then Na+Nd=1.75x1016 cm-3 , and the
hole mobility, from figure mobility versus impurity concentration, is approximately
µp=410 cm2/Vs. The conductivity is then,

σ = eµ p ( N a − N d ) = 1.6 ×10 −19 × 410 × ((12.5 − 5) × 1015 ) = 0.492

This is very close to the value we need. From the calculation

L=5x10-2 cm
A=10-5 cm2
Na=1.25x1016 cm-3
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Velocity Saturation

vd = µE
Drift velocity increase linearly with applied electric field.

At low electric field,

vd increase linearly
with applied E.
slope=mobility

At high electric field,

vd saturates
 Constant value
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Carrier diffusion

Diffusion; process whereby particles from a region of high concentration toward

a region of low concentration.

Carrier divider
Electron concentration, n

Electron flux
 dn 
J nx|dif = (−e) Dn  − 
 dx 
Electron diffusion dn
current density J nx|dif = eDn
dx

Position x
Dn; electron diffusion coefficient
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 dp 
J px|dif = eD p  − 
Hole centration, p

 dx 
Hole flux
dp
J px|dif = −eD p
dx
Hole diffusion
current density
Dp; hole diffusion coefficient
Position x

Diffusion coefficient; indicates how well carrier move as a result of

density gradient.
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Total Current Density

Total Current
Density

Electron drift hole drift Electron diffusion hole diffusion

current current current current

1-D
J = J n|drf + J nx|dif + J p|drf + J px|dif
dn dp
J = enµ n E x + epµ p E x + eDn − eD p
dx dx
3-D

J = enµ n E + epµ p E + eDn ∇n − eD p ∇p

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Mobility,µ; indicates how well carrier moves due to electrical field

Diffusion coefficient, D; how well carrier moves due to density gradient

Here, we derive relationship between mobility and diffusion

coefficient using nonuniformly doped semiconductor model

“Einstein relation”

Graded impurity distribution

EC
electron Energy-band diagram
EF

x Ev
nonuniformly doped semiconductor
x
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EC Doping concentration decreases as x increases

Electron diffuse in +x direction
EF The flow of electron leaves behind positively
charged donor
Ev

Induce electrical field, Ex, given by

x
 kT  1 dN d ( x)
E x = −  …eq.1
 e  N d ( x) dx

Since there are no electrical connections, there is no current(J=0)

dN d ( x)
Electron current J = eµ n N d ( x) E x + eDn =0 …eq.2
dx
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From eq.1 and 2,

Dn kT
=
µn e

Hole current must also be zero. We can show that

Dp kT
=
µp e

Dn D p kT
= =
µn µ p e

Diffusion coefficient and mobility are not independent parameters.

The relationship between this 2 parameter “Einstein relation”
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The Hall effect

Using the effect, we can determine

The type of semiconductor
Carrier concentration
mobility
Magnetic field

Force on charged particle

in magnetic field (“Lorentz
force”)

F = qv × B

Applied electrical field

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the Lorentz force on electron

and hole is in –y direction
There will be buildup of negative
charge (n-type) or positive charge
(p-type) at y=0
As a results, an electrical field
called “Hall field, EH” is induced.
Hall field produces “Hall voltage,
VH”

Polarity of VH is used to determine the type of semiconductor

In y-direction, Lorentz force will be balanced by force due to Hall field

VH
qv x × Bz = q (p-type)
W
VH = v xWBz
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For p-type Ix
vx =
(ep)(Wd )

I x Bz
VH =
epd
I B
p= x z Can calculate the hole concentration in p-type
eVH d

For n-type I x Bz
VH = −
end Note that VH is negative for n-type
I B
n=− x z
eVH d
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When we know the carrier concentration, we can calculate carrier mobility

Ix epµ p E x
=
J x = epµ p E x Wd L
IxL
µp =
epVxWd

Similar with n-type, mobility is determined from

IxL
µn =
enVxWd