University of Northeastern Philippines

School of Graduate Studies and Research

Iriga City

METHODS OF RESEARCH
(Educ. 200)
 OVERVIEW
Many of the educational practices used in schools
today have grown out activities that resemble research
techniques. Undoubtedly, the history of the growth of
these practices would show that they were found to be
sound through chance, trial-and-error, and practical
experience. Hence, as educators began to reason and
apply information, to repeat and perfect methods of
instruction, new facts and ideas not previously known
were obtained. From these grass roots have sprung the
many facets of growth in the educator’s present
knowledge of research. All educators can benefit from
the knowledge of the nature, techniques, and
procedures of scientific research. This knowledge is
useful because these skills will enable classroom
teachers and other professionals to utilize scientific
methods in attacking their own practical problems.
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the student is
expected to:
 define research in relation to its purposes and
goals;
 demonstrate the characteristics of a good research;
 differentiate research and problem-solving;
 classify the different types of research;
 identify some hindrances of research; and
 enumerate the steps in the scientific method of
research.
DISCUSSION: INTRODUCTION
 Research is a key to progress. There can be no
progress without research in almost if not all
endeavors. In government, in education, in trade
and commerce, and in all types and kinds of
industries, research is vital and essential. Therefore,
the methods and techniques must be taught and
learned in graduate as well as in undergraduate
educational work, This is imperative because the
people who have gone through the college and
graduate levels of education are the ones who are
most expected to undertake research activities.
 Due to the reasons above, it is the purpose of this book to
make the study of research methods and techniques as well
as thesis writing easier, more practical and understandable
but comprehensive enough.
 Definitions of Research
 There are almost as many definitions of research as there
are authors writing about the subject. Fortunately, the
different definitions formulated by such authors have
common elements. Samples of research definitions follow
 Good defines research as a “careful, critical, disciplined
inquiry, varying in technique and method according to the
nature and conditions of the problem identified, directed
toward the clarification or resolution (or both) of a problem.
“Good, p.464)
 Aquino has more detailed definition of research. He says
that “research is, simply, the systematic search for
pertinent information on a specific topic or problem. After
a careful, systematic search for pertinent information or
data on a specific topic or problem, and after the research
worker has analyzed and interpreted the data, he
eventually faces another essential task – that of preparing
the research report.”(Aquino, p.1)
 Research has been defined as “The process of gathering
data or information to solve a particular or specific
problem in a scientific manner.”(Manuel and Medel, p.5)
 Parel defines research as “systematic study or
investigation of something for the purpose of answering
questions posed by the researcher.”(Cited by Sanchez, p.2)
 Treece and Treece commended that “research in its
broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to
problems. More precisely, it is the collection of data in
a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of
prediction or explanation.”Treece and Treece, p.3)
 Formulated in a more comprehensive form,
research may be defined as a purposive, systematic
and scientific process of gathering, analyzing,
classifying, organizing, presenting, and interpreting
data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for
invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the
expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for
the preservation and improvements of the quality of
human life.
Purposes of Research (Aims, Objectives, Goals)

The definition of research says that research is purposive. The main or

principal purpose and goal of research is the preservation and improvement
of the quality of human life. All kinds of research are directed toward this end.
“The purpose of research is to serve man.” and “The goal of research is the
good life.” (Good and Scales, pp.9,14) Due to research, man has attained
great accelerating progress and is enjoying the products of research such as
the fast and comfortable land, sea, and air means of transportation, the
wonders of electricity like the radio, telephone, air conditioning, lights in the
homes, movies running machinery for industry, the computer, the potent
drugs that promote health and prolong life, and many other countless things.
“To satisfy man’s craving for more understanding, to improve his judgment,
to add to his power, to reduce the burden of work, to relieve suffering, and to
increase satisfactions in multitudinous ways – these are the large and
fundamental goals of research.” (Good and Scares p. 15)
 For more specific purposes and goals of research, the following may be
mentioned:
1. To discover new facts about known phenomena. (Alcohol is a known
phenomenon and research may turn it into a kind of fuel equal in quality to
gasoline)
2. To find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing
methods and information. (Cancer is a serious disease which is only
partially cured by present methods but due to intensive and continuous
research, the disease may be eradicated later on)
3. Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products.
(This goal envisages the invention of new gadgets and machines, food
products and others used by man)
4. To discover previously unrecognized substances or elements. (Previously
we had only 92 elements but due to research we now have more than 100)
5. Discover pathways of action of known substances and elements. (Due to
research we come to know the dangers from the abusive use of
unprescribed drugs and some poisonous substances)
These are suggested by French (Treece and Treece, Jr., p. 5) and the
statements enclosed in parentheses are examples by the author.
6. To order related, valid generalizations into systematized science.
Schiolofeldt. (Ibid.) (The result of this purpose of research is the
science we are now studying in school)
7. To provide basis for decision-making in business, industry, education,
government, and in other undertakings. One approach in decision-
making is the research approach. (Gore and Dyson, p. 65). (This is
basing important decisions upon the results of research)
8. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity. (Sanchez, p. 3) (Edison was
curious about how a hen hatches her eggs and make a research on
that and invented the incubator)
9. To find answers to queries by means of scientific methods. One
important question that may be asked which can be answered only by
means of research is: In what setting is life expectancy higher, in the
city or in the barrio?
10. To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one
phenomenon that can be known and understood better by research is
why we generally smaller than men.
11. To expand or verify existing knowledge. This usually happens when researches
are replicated. Newly discovered facts may be found to expand knowledge gained
from a previous research or verified if the same facts are found.

In relation to Purposes Nos. 2 and 3, the following may be added to the list of
purposes:
12. To improve educational practices for raising the quality of school products.
Research surveys often result in the revision of curricula and instructional
innovations to maximize the medical research.
13. To promote health and prolong life. This purpose is very obviously demonstrated
in pharmaceutical, nutritional, and medical research.
14. To provide man with more of his basic needs – more and better food, clothing,
shelter, etc. The work of the International Rice Research Institute in Los Baños,
Laguna is a good example of this purpose.
15. To make work, travel, and communication faster, easier, and more comfortable.
Due to research airplanes are made to fly faster, land vehicles to run faster, labor-
saving machines have been invented and improved, radio and television bring
news immediately to the remote areas, and more wonders of electricity are
making life easier and better.
Characteristics of Good Research
 Crawford, from his definition, has given some characteristics of
research as follow: (Quoted by Aquino, p. 1)
 Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of
thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments and procedures
in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than
would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a problem,
collects data or facts, analyze these critically, and reaches
decisions based on actual evidence. It evolves from a genuine
desire to know rather than a desire to prove something, seeking to
know not only what but how much, and measurement is therefore
a central feature of it.
 Another author, Best, gives a summary of the more important
characteristics of a good research as follows: (Cited by Aquino,
p. )
1. Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary of first-hand
sources. It is not research when one merely restates or merely
reorganizes what is already known or what had been written.
Research places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
It goes beyond the specific groups and situations investigated, and,
by careful sampling procedures, infers qualities of the entire
population from those observed in the smaller group.

2. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation. The

researcher known what is already known about his problem. He
proceeds from this point, carefully planning his procedures. Data are
gathered, recorded, and analyzed with as much accuracy as possible.
He uses such valid data-gathering instruments as he can find or
devise, and employs mechanical means to improve on the accuracy
of human observation, recording, and computation of data.
3. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to verify the
data collected and the procedures employed. The researcher constantly strives
to eliminate personal feeling and preference. He resists the temptation to seek
only the data that support his hypothesis. The researcher elevates clear
thinking and logic. He suppresses feeling and emotion in his analysis.
4. Research endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms, if possible, and
express them as numerical measures. Research is patient and unhurried. The
researcher is willing to exert painstaking effort, suspending judgment to
permit the data and logic to lead to a sound conclusion. He realizes that
significant findings do not come as a result of hurried and careless procedures.
Research requires courage. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to
conclusions that may be unpopular and bring social disapproval.
5. Research is carefully recorded and reported. Every term is carefully defined, all
procedures are described in detail, all limiting factors are recognized, all
references are carefully documented, and all results are objectively recorded.
All conclusions are generalizations are cautiously arrived at, with due
consideration for all of the limitations of methodology, data collected, and
errors of human interpretation.
From the discussions above, the characteristics
of research may be summarized as follows:

1. Research is systematic. It follows an orderly and sequential

procedure that leads to the discovery of truth, solution of
a problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered.
2. Research is controlled. All variables except those that are
tested or being experimented upon are kept constants
(not allowed to change or vary) so that the changes made
on the subjects of the study can be attributed only to the
experimental variable. This is especially true in an
experimental research.
3. Research is empirical. All the procedures employed and
the data gathered are perceived in the same manner by all
observers. For instance, one says that there are five
persons in the room, all agree to the existence of the five
persons. However, if one says that there are five ghosts in
the room, one or none at all may believe it because not all
people believe in ghosts. Ghosts are examples of data are
not empirical.
4. Research is analytical. There is a critical analysis of all the
data used so that there is no error in their interpretation.
5. Research is objective, unbiased and logical. All the findings
are conclusions re logically based on empirical data and no
effort is made to alter the results of the research.
6. Research employs hypothesis. This is to guide the investigation
process. In experimental studies, hypotheses are expressly
stated but in descriptive studies, the specific sub-problems or
specific questions serve as the hypotheses and the hypotheses
are tested and not proved.
7. Research employs quantitative or statistical methods. Data are
transformed into numerical measures and are treated
statistically to determine their significance or usefulness.
8. Research is original work. Except in historical research, data are
gathered from primary sources or first-hand sources and not
from secondary sources (usually printed materials such as books,
or theses, etc.)
9. Research is done by an expert. The researcher users valid and
carefully designed procedures, valid data-gathering instruments,
and valid data. He subjects his data to expert scrutiny.
10. Research is accurate investigation, observation and description. In
fact, every research activity must be done accurately so that the
findings will lead to the formulation of scientific generalizations. All
conclusions are based on actual evidence.
11. Research is patient and unhurried activity. This is to ensure
accuracy. Research that is hurriedly done or conducted carelessly
due to racing against time may lead to shaky conclusions and
generalizations.
12. Research requires an effort-making capacity. No research can be
conducted without the exertion of much effort. No one without any
effort-making capacity can conduct a research because research
involves much work and time.
13. Research requires courage. Research requires courage because the
researcher oftentimes undergo hazards, discomforts and the like.
At times the researcher encounters public and social disapproval.
Also, disagreements with colleagues may arise.
Differences Between Research and Problem-Solving
The researcher must be able to distinguish between research and problem-solving.
His supposed research problem may only be good as follows: (Treece and Treece, Jr.,
pp. 47 – 48)
Kinds and Classifications of
Research
 There are many kinds of research which are
classified according to their distinctive features.
Some of the classifications are as follows:
1. According to purpose. Trow identifies three
broadly different kinds of research, namely,
predictive, directive, and illuminative. (Treece
and Treece, Jr., p.5)
a. Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of determining
the future operation of the variables under investigation with the
aim of controlling or redirecting such for the better. “Predictive
research proposes to give the result from one specific educational
practice or pattern and seeks to establish a close statistical
connection between characteristics of students and a prediction of
educational outcome.”
b. Directive research determines what should be done based on the
findings. This is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition if there is
any.
c. Illuminative research is concerned with the interaction of the
components of the variable being investigated, as for example,
“interaction of the components of educational systems and aims
to show the connection among, for example, student
characteristics organizational patterns and policies, and
educational consequence.”
2. According to goal. According to goal, research may be classified as
basic or pure research and applied research.
a. Basic of pure research is done for the development of theories or
principles. It is conducted for the intellectual pleasure of learning.
Much of this kind of research has been done in psychology and
sociology. (Manuel and Medel, p. 18)
b. Applied research is the application of the results of pure research.
This is testing the efficacy of theories and principles. For instance,
a principle says that praise reinforces learning. To determine if this
is true, one conducts an experiment in which there are two
classes. In one class, he uses praise but the other class there is no
praise at all. All other things are kept equal. At the end of the
experimental period, he gives the same test to the two classes. If
the scores of the pupils in the class with praise are significantly
higher than those in the class without praise, then the principle is
true.
3. According to the levels of investigation. French categorizes
research according to the levels of investigation into exploratory
research, descriptive research, and experimental research.
a. In exploratory research, the researcher studies the variables
pertinent to a specific situation.
b. In descriptive research, the researcher studies relationship of the
variables.
c. In experimental research, the experimenter studies the effects of
variables on each other. (Treece and Treece, Jr., p.6)
4. According to the type of analysis. According to the type of analysis,
Weiss classifies research into analytic research and holistic research.
a. In the analytic approach, the researcher attempts to identify and
isolate the components of the research situation.
b. The holistic approach begins with the total situation, focusing
attention on the system first and then on its internal relationships.
(Treece and Treece, Jr. p. 6)
5. According to scope. Under this category is action research. This type
of research is done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem
which is not so big. It is almost problem-solving.
 In education, it is a firing-line or on the job type of problem-solving or
research used by teachers, supervisors, and administrators to improve
the quality of their decisions and actions; it seeks more dependable and
appropriate means of promoting and evaluating pupil growth in line
with specific and general objectives and attempts to improve
educational practices without reference to whether findings would be
applicable beyond the group studied. (Good, p. 464)
6. According to choice of answers to problems. Ackoff divides research
that is concerned with finding answers to problems into evaluation and
developmental research
a. In evaluation research, all possible courses of action are specified and
identified and the researcher tries to find the most advantageious.
b. In developmental research, the focus is on finding or developing a
more suitable instrument or process than has been available. (Treece
and Treece, Jr., p. 6)
7. According to statistical content. Under this type may be mentioned
quantitative research and non-quantitative research.
a. Quantitative or statistical research is one in which inferential
statistics are utilized to determine the results of the study.
Inferential statistics such s correlation, chi-square, analysis of
variance, etc. are used to test the hypothesis. This type of research
usually includes comparison studies, cause-and-effect relationships,
etc.
b. Non-quantitative research. This research in which the use of
quantity or statistics is practically nil. This is especially true in
anthropological studies where description is usually used.
Descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative data.
8. According to time element. According to time element. Best
classifies research as historical, descriptive, and experimental.
a. Historical research describes what was.
b. Descriptive research describes what is.
c. Experimental research describes what will be. ( Treece and Treece,
Jr.,p. 6)
 Historical, descriptive, and experimental are the three major
research methods. All other methods, kinds, and types of
research whatever they are called fall under these three major
methods.
 Other types and kinds of research are named according to the
area or field of activity. Hence, we have sociological research,
social research, psychological research, anthropological
research, physical research, chemical research, industrial
research, economics research, health research, nursing research,
curriculum research, educational research, and coutless others.
 Some Hindrances to Scientific Inquiry (Errors in Personal
Judgment)
 Babbie gives the following as some of the hindrances to
scientific inquiry. They are mostly erros in personal judgment.
(Babbie, pp. 6 -16) The explanations are made for local
adaptation.
1. Tradition. This is accepting that customs beliefs, practices, and superstitions are
true and are parts of the daily lives of men. No effort is exerted to find out
whether they are true or not. For example, there is a traditional belief among
some women that woven who are conceiving should avoid eating dark or black
food such as black berries because their children will become dark also. This may
be true or not, but many women believe and practice it without verifying its
truth. People have the idea that when everybody does a thing, it is true. This
belief is a hindrance to scientific investigation.
2. Authority. This is accepting without question, an opinion about a certain subject
which is given by someone who is considered an authority on the subject. If an
ordinary person says that kissing transmits colds, he is not believe much, he may
even be laughed at. On the other hand, when a doctor says the same thing, he is
believed without question. Supposed, a doctor commits a mistake and it is a fact
that some doctors commit mistakes sometimes. Worse, sometimes persons with
big names in the community make pronouncements about things outside their
own expertise and they are believed because of their big names. They are
believed without any scientific inquiry about the truth of their pronouncements.
For instance, a well-known athlete is made to announce that to drink a certain
brand of liquor is good because it makes the body strong. Big stars in the movies
are often made to sponsor the sale of certain products, especially beauty
enhancing things or articles, and they are believed without the slightest
semblance of any scientific investigation.
3. Inaccurate observation. This is describing wrongly what is actually observed. For
instance, in the dad of a moonlit nights, a man sees a shadow in the form of a
person and the man concludes at once without any investigation that he has seen
a ghost. When a meteor streaks the atmosphere, people who see it say they have
seen a flying saucer. When one sees a man lying unconscious in the street after he
is hit by a speeding car, he concludes at once that the person is already dead even
if he is not. He does not investigate anymore.
4. Overgeneralization. This is establishing a pattern out of a few instances. For
instance, when one sees one or two Ilocano husbands who are hardworking,
responsible and trustworthy then he concludes that Ilocano husbands are
hardworking, responsible, and trustworthy. When one happens to travel in a rough
road in a certain province he forms the impressions that the roads in that province
he forms the impressions that the roads in that province are rough. He does not
take the pains anymore to see if the other roads in the province are also rough.
5. Selective observation. This is persisting to believe an observed pattern from an
overgeneralization and ignoring other pertinent patterns. For example, one sees
for the first time one or two prosperous Chinese stores beside a poor, struggling
Filipino store. H forms the conclusion that the Chinese are more shrewd and more
competitive than Filipinos. So whenever he sees Chinese and Filipino stores he
always has that idea that Chinese are better businessmen than Filipino ignoring
the fact that there are also poor Chinese businessmen and there are also very good
and more competitive Filipino businessmen.
6. Made-up information. This is making information to explain away confusion.
Supposed a buyer buys from a store, goods worth P50.00 and gives to the
storekeeper a P100.00 bill. The storekeeper mistakenly gives a change of
P40.00. The buyer goes away without counting the change but when he gets
home he finds that the change is short of P10.00. Instead of going back to the
store to find out why he has a wrong change, he concludes that the
storekeeper is a cheater and the members of his family are also cheaters.
Then, he busy again from the store but accidentally leaves his wallet when he
is paying for the goods. A son of the storekeeper goes to the buyer’s house
returning the wallet. Instead of thinking that after all the storekeeper is an
honest fellow and perhaps also his family members, he imagines that maybe
the boy went to his house purposely not to return the wallet but to see his
house for a possible burglary.
 Another example of made-up information is wrongly interpreting the finds of
a research material.
7. Illogical reasoning. This is attributing something to another without any
logical basis. For instance, because of the extended good weather it may rain
at the weekend. Or, because it is sunny it will not rain that day. Or. When a
woman is believed to be a sorcerer. These are beliefs without any logical basis
and no effort is exerted to verify them.
8. Ego-involvement in understanding. This is giving an explanation when
one finds himself in an unfavorable situation. For instance, when
foreigners make a slur on Filipinos, the latter counter that, that is racial
discrimination without investigating whether the slight is true or not.
When a student gets a low grade, he says that he got low grade because
his teacher has a personal grudge against him and he is a victim of
vindictiveness. He does not make any effort to examine his abilities, his
habits of study, etc.
9. Mystification. This is attributing to supernatural power, the phenomena
that cannot be understood. This is accepting that there are things which
are beyond human intelligence to understand and which are reserved only
to a supernatural being. Thus, no effort is exerted to make a scientific
inquiry about these phenomena.
10. To err is human. This is an attitude that admits the fallibility of man.
When a man renders a wrong decision or commits a mistake, he merely
learns on the saying “To err is human.” He does not make any effort
anymore to study why he committed the error, how he committed the
error, the implications of his error, how he can correct his error and how to
make more sound decision in the future.
11. Dogmatism. This is an addition. This is an unwritten policy of certain
institutions and governments prohibiting the study of topics that are
believed to run counter the established doctrines of such institutions
or governments. Thus in communistic states, it is unlikely that one
studies and writes about the beauty of democracy. The same is true
in a democracy. There is a veiled prohibition to study and write about
the beauty and adoption of communism. It may be a remote
possibility that a research student in a Christian church-related
school can make a study about the non-existence of God. It is
unlikely also that one advocates the adoption of polygamy in a
Christian community because his study findings say that polygamy is
good.
 The above are some hindrances to scientific investigation.
The Scientific Method of Research

 One of the characteristics of good research is that, it is systematic. It

follows the scientific method of research which includes the following
sequential steps: (Treece and Treece, Jr., p. 47)
1. Determining (recognizing) the problem;
2. Forming a hypothesis;
3. Doing the library research;
4. Designing the study;
5. Developing the instruments for collecting data;
6. Collecting the data;
7. Analyzing the data;
8. Determining implications and conclusions from the findings
and
9. Making recommendations for further research.
 It should be borne in mind that the researcher goes through all the
nine steps when he does his research and when he writes his
research report. If the standard format of thesis writing is followed,
the first two steps will be included in Chapter 1, “The Problem and Its
Setting”; the third step will be in Chapter 2, “Related Literature and
Studies”; the fourth, fifth and sixth steps will be discussed in Chapter
3, “Methods of Research Procedures”, the seventh step will be
presented in Chapter 4, Analysis, Presentation, and Interpretation of
data;, and the last two steps placed in Chapter 5, “Summary,
Conclusion, and Recommendations”.
 Principles of the scientific method. (Ibid., p. 50) The principles of the
scientific method are:
1. Rigid control,
2. Objectivity,
3. Systematic organization, and
4. Rigorous standards.
 Rigid control Refers to the manipulation of the research
variables. Variables are those things that vary in quantity
and quality which are to be manipulated by the researcher.
Examples of variables are age, sex, population, adequacy,
efficiency, etc. There are variables which should be
controlled rigidly, that is, kept constant or equal in a certain
research work.
 Objectivity means that there should be no bias or partiality
in treating the results of the inquiry. The results should not
be tampered with whatever they may be.
 Systematic organization refers to proper and accurate
tabulation of data s well as presenting them in statistical
tables ready for interpretation.
 It should be noted that the development of this book follows
the sequential steps of the scientific method of research.
Designing the Study
 Designing the study must follow the scientific method of research.
Aside from choosing the right problem, forming the hypotheses,
and library research to be used, the study population, the
instrument for gathering data and its preparation, the sampling
design, statistical treatment of data, and analysis and presentation
of data.
 Following are discussions and explanations of each of these aspects
of the research procedure. After carefully studying these
discussions and explanations, the researcher can already make a
workable design of research for his investigation.
 There are three major research methods with their respective
variation from which the researcher may choose the method he
wants to use depending upon the nature of his investigation. These
are the historical, descriptive, and experimental methods of
research.
 Discussed and explained also are the different methods
of collecting data such as the interview, questionnaire,
observation, tests, and others as well as the preparation
of their respective instruments.
 Sampling designs such as pure random, systematic,
stratified, cluster and other types are also well
elaborated on.
 Other activities involved in conducting research
inquiries and writing research reports are also given clear
explanations with illustrations for better understanding.
How to write the research report or thesis has been given
very ample explanations and illustrations, chapter by
chapter for better understanding of the whole process of
research reporting or thesis writing.
  EVALUATION
 How do you define research?
 What are the purposes and goals of research?
 How do you characterize a good research?
 How are research and problem-solving differentiated?
 How is research classified according to the following:
a. Purpose
b. Goal
c. Levels of investigation
d. Types of Analysis
e. Scope
f. Statistical Content
 What are some hindrances to research? Why are they called
hindrances?
 Why should the scientific method of research be followed? What are
the steps in the scientific method? Explain.