FUNCTIONALLY GRADED
MATERIALS
[Link] Kumar (Ph.D)
[Link]
ME Dept.
INTRODUCTION
Pure metals and non metals
Alloys
Composites
Functionally
graded materials
DEFINITION
Functionally graded materials (FGM) are composite
materials which are designed to present a particular
spatial variation of their properties
This is usually achieved by forming a compound of two
components whose volume fraction is changed across a
certain direction.
For example, the toughness of a metal can be mated with
the refractoriness of a ceramic without any compromise
in the toughness of the metal or the refractoriness of the
ceramic.
ORIGIN
The “first” FGM was developed in Japan
in 1984-85 as the result of a space-plane
project. Although the concept of FGM is
recent, many materials that fit the
description have existed for decades
Some FGM also occur naturally:
Bones and teeth
Seashells
Bamboo tree
Human skin
SOME NATURALLY OCCURRING FGMS
HUMAN SKIN BONE
BAMBOO TREE
WHY FGM?
Better adherence of a protective
layer (against corrosion, for
instance)
Minimization of interfacial stresses
between different materials (e.g. due to
temperature variation)
FGMs allow better customization and tailoring of materials
for specific tasks
More variety in material selection for engineering design
Stiffer at clamped end Softer at clamped end
CLASSIFICATION OF FGMS
FGMs may be compositionally or micro-structurally
graded
FGMs come in several types, depending on their
constituents (e.g. ceramic-metal, metal-
metal…)
Depending upon the nature of gradient, the
functionally graded materials (composites) may be
grouped into following types
1) Fraction gradient type
2) Shape gradient type
3) Orientation gradient type
4) Size (of material) gradient type
Based on gradation FGMs are classified into
1) Continuous
2) Stepped
Continuous Stepped
EXAMPLES
TUNGSTEN-COPPER
Tungste Copper
n surface:
surface: Good electric
Hard, refractory and thermal
material conductivity
MULLITE (Al6Si2O13) -MOLYBDENUM
PROCESSING METHODS
Thin FGM: It consist of relatively thin sections or
thin surface coating.
1. Vapour Deposition techniques(i.e. PVD,CVD)
2. Plasma Spraying
3. Self-propagating High temperature synthesis (SHS)
Bulk FGM: It consist of volume of materials which
require more labour intensive processes.
1. Powder metallurgy technique
[Link] casting method
[Link] freeform technology
VAPOUR DEPOSITION TECHNIQUE
CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION (CVD)
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) is a chemical
process used to produce high purity, high performance
solid materials.
In a typical CVD process, the substrate is exposed to one
or more volatile precursors which react and decompose
on the substrate surface to produce the desired deposit.
During this process, volatile by-products are also
produced, which are removed by gas flow through the
reaction chamber
PHYSICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION(PVD)
Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) is
fundamentally a vaporization coating technique,
involving transfer of material on an atomic level.
The process is similar to chemical Vapour deposition
(CVD) except that the raw materials/precursors,
i.e. the material that is going to be deposited starts out
in solid form, whereas in CVD, the precursors are
introduced to the reaction chamber in the gaseous state.
PLASMA SPRAYING
THE PLASMA SPRAY PROCESS
The Plasma Spray Process is basically the spraying of
molten or heat softened material onto a surface to
provide a coating.
Material in the form of powder is injected into a very
high temperature plasma flame, where it is rapidly heated
and accelerated to a high velocity.
The hot material impacts on the substrate surface and
rapidly cools forming a coating.
.
SELF PROPAGATAING HIGH TEMPERATURE SYNTHESIS
SELF PROPAGATING HIGH TEMPERATURE
SYNTHESIS
In its usual format, SHS is conducted starting from
finely powdered reactants that are intimately mixed.
In some cases, the reagents are finely powdered whereas
in other cases, they are sintered to minimize their
surface area and prevent uninitiated exothermic
reactions, which can be dangerous.
The synthesis is initiated by point-heating of a small
part (usually the top) of the sample. Once started, a
wave of exothermic reaction sweeps through the
remaining material.
POWDER METALLURGY TECHNIQUE
Sintering is the process of taking metal in the form of a powder and
placing it into a mold or die. Once compacted into the mold the
material is placed under a high heat for a long period of time. Under
heat, bonding takes place between the porous aggregate particles and
once cooled the powder has bonded to form a solid piece.
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING PROCESS
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING PROCESS
In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold is rotated
continuously about its axis at high speeds (300 to 3000
rpm) as the molten metal is poured.
The molten metal is centrifugally thrown towards the
inside mold wall, where it solidifies after cooling. The
casting is usually a fine-grained casting with a very fine-
grained outer diameter, owing to chilling against the
mould surface.
Casting machines may be either horizontal or vertical-
axis. Horizontal axis machines are preferred for long,
thin cylinders, vertical machines for rings.
SOLID FREE FORM TECHNOLOGY
SOLID FREE FORM TECHNOLOGY
SFF involves five basic steps:
Generation of CAD data from the software like
AutoCAD, Solid edge etc.
Conversion of the CAD data to Standard Triangulation
Language (STL) file
Slicing of the STL into two dimensional cross-section
profiles
Building of the component layer by layer
Removal and finishing
APPLICATION
S
AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
They have the added advantage that the metal side can
be bolted onto the airframe rather than bonded as are the
ceramic tiles used in the Orbiter.
Other possible uses include combustion chamber
insulation in ramjet or scramjet engines
NUCLEAR FUSION REACTORS
Modification to heat exchangers in tokomak
fusion reactors
FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY
Creating a porosity gradient in the electrodes,
the efficiency of the reaction can be maximized
OTHER APPLICATIONS
Cutting tool insert coating
Automobile engine
components
Turbine blade
Heat exchanger
Fire retardant doors
Sensors
CONCLUSIONS
Functionally graded materials are still a very recent
area of research (and thus very active)
Current research is mostly focused on uncovering the
complex nature of fracture mechanics due to material
non-homogeneity as well as in developing/improving
forming processes so that the target gradient is achieved
with precision