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 Chapter 9

Six-Sigma Quality
 9-3

OBJECTIVES

• Total Quality Management Defined

• Quality Specifications and Costs
• Six Sigma Quality and Tools
• External Benchmarking
• ISO 9000
• Service Quality Measurement
 9-4

Total Quality Management (TQM)

• Total quality management is defined as

managing the entire organization so that
it excels on all dimensions of products
and services that are important to the
customer
 9-5

Quality Specifications

• Design quality: Inherent value of the

product in the marketplace

– Dimensions include: Performance, Features,

Reliability/Durability, Serviceability,
Aesthetics, and Perceived Quality.

• Conformance quality: Degree to which

the product or service design
specifications are met
 9-6

Costs of Quality

Appraisal Costs

External Failure Costs of

Costs Quality Prevention Costs

Internal Failure
Costs
 9-7

Six Sigma Quality

• A philosophy and set of methods

companies use to eliminate
defects in their products and
processes
• Seeks to reduce variation in the
processes that lead to product
defects
 9-8

Six Sigma Quality (Continued)

• Six Sigma allows managers to readily

describe process performance using a
common metric: Defects Per Million
Opportunities (DPMO)

Number
of defects
DPMO = x1,000,000
 Number of 
 opportunit
ies [Link] units
 forerrorper 
 unit 
 
 9-9

Six Sigma Quality (Continued)

Example
Example of of Defects
DefectsPer
Per Million
Million So,
So,for
forevery
everyone
one
Opportunities million
millionletters
Opportunities(DPMO)
(DPMO) calculation.
calculation. delivered
letters
Suppose deliveredthis
this
Suppose we weobserve
observe 200
200 letters
letters city’s
city’spostal
postal
delivered
delivered incorrectly
incorrectly to
tothe
the wrong
wrong managers
managerscan can
addresses
addresses in inaa small
small city
city during
duringaa expect
expecttotohave
have
single
single day
day when
whenaa total
total of
of 200,000
200,000 1,000
1,000letters
letters
letters incorrectly
incorrectlysent
sentto
letterswere
were delivered.
delivered. What
What isisthe
the the
to
DPMO thewrong
wrongaddress.
address.
DPMO in in this
thissituation?
situation?

200
DPMO = = 1, 000
x1,000,000
[ 1] x200,000

Cost
Cost of
of Quality:
Quality:What
Whatmight
mightthat
that DPMO
DPMO mean
mean in
in terms
terms
of
of over-time
over-timeemployment
employment to
tocorrect
correct the
theerrors?
errors?
 9-10

Six Sigma Quality: DMAIC Cycle

• Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve,

and Control (DMAIC)
• Developed by General Electric as a
means of focusing effort on quality
using a methodological approach
• Overall focus of the methodology is
to understand and achieve what the
customer wants
• A 6-sigma program seeks to reduce
the variation in the processes that
lead to these defects
• DMAIC consists of five steps….
 9-11

Six Sigma Quality: DMAIC Cycle (Continued)

1. Define (D) Customers and their priorities

2. Measure (M) Process and its performance

3. Analyze (A) Causes of defects

4. Improve (I) Remove causes of defects

5. Control (C) Maintain quality

 9-12

Example to illustrate the process…

• We are the maker of this cereal.

Consumer reports has just published
an article that shows that we
frequently have less than 16 ounces
of cereal in a box.
• What should we do?
 9-13

Step 1 - Define

• What is the critical-to-quality

characteristic?
• The CTQ (critical-to-quality)
characteristic in this case is the
weight of the cereal in the box.
 9-14

2 - Measure

• How would we measure to

evaluate the extent of the
problem?
• What are acceptable limits on
this measure?
 9-15

2 – Measure (continued)

• Let’s assume that the

government says that we must
be within ± 5 percent of the
weight advertised on the box.
• Upper Tolerance Limit = 16 + .
05(16) = 16.8 ounces
• Lower Tolerance Limit = 16 – .
05(16) = 15.2 ounces
 9-16

2 – Measure (continued)

• We go out and buy 1,000

boxes of cereal and find that
they weight an average of
15.875 ounces with a standard
deviation of .529 ounces.
• What percentage of boxes are
outside the tolerance limits?
 9-17

Process
Lower Tolerance Mean = 15.875 Upper Tolerance
= 15.2 Std. Dev. = .529 = 16.8

What percentage of boxes are defective (i.e. less than 15.2 oz)?

Z = (x – Mean)/Std. Dev. = (15.2 – 15.875)/.529 = -1.276

NORMSDIST(Z) = NORMSDIST(-1.276) = .100978

Approximately, 10 percent of the boxes have less than 15.2

Ounces of cereal in them!
 9-18

Step 3 - Analyze - How can we improve the

capability of our cereal box filling process?

– Decrease Variation
– Center Process
– Increase Specifications
 9-19

Step 4 – Improve – How good is good

enough? Motorola’s “Six Sigma”

– 6σ minimum from process center to nearest

spec

12σ

6σ

3 2 1 0 1 2 3
 9-20

Motorola’s “Six Sigma”

Implies 2 ppB “bad” with no process shift.
•
With 1.5σ shift in either direction from center (process will
•
move), implies 3.4 ppm “bad”.

12σ

3 2 1 0 1 2 3
 9-21

Step 5 – Control

• Statistical Process Control (SPC)

– Use data from the actual process
– Estimate distributions
– Look at capability - is good quality possible
– Statistically monitor the process over time
 9-22

Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement:

Flow Chart

Material
No,
Received Continue…
Inspect
from
Material for Defects
Supplier
Defects found?

Yes

Can
Canbebeused
usedto
to
find
findquality
quality Return to
problems
problems Supplier
for Credit
 9-23

Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Run Chart

Can
Canbebeused
usedtotoidentify
identify
when
whenequipment
equipmentor or
processes
processesarearenot
not
behaving
behavingaccording
accordingtoto
Diameter

specifications
specifications
0.58
0.56
0.54
0.52
0.5
0.48
0.46
0.44
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (Hours)
 9-24

Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Pareto

Analysis

Can 80%
Can be be used
used
to
to find
find when
when
80%
80% of of the
the Frequency
problems
problems
may
may be be
attributed
attributed to to
20%
20% of of the
the
causes
causes
Design Assy. Purch. Training
Instruct.
 9-25

Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous

Improvement: Checksheet

Can
Canbebeused
usedtotokeep
keeptrack
trackof
of
defects
defectsororused
usedtotomake
makesure
sure
people
peoplecollect
collectdata
datain
inaa
Monday correct
correctmanner
manner
Billing Errors

Wrong Account

Wrong Amount

A/R Errors

Wrong Account

Wrong Amount
 9-26

Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous

Improvement: Histogram

Can
Canbebeused
usedto
toidentify
identifythe
thefrequency
frequencyof ofquality
quality
Number of Lots

defect
defectoccurrence
occurrenceand
anddisplay
displayquality
quality
performance
performance

0 1 2 3 4 Defects
Data Ranges in lot
 9-27

Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement:

Cause & Effect Diagram

Possible The
Theresults
Possiblecauses:
causes: results
or
or effect
effect
Machine Man

Environment Effect

Method Material

Can
Canbebeused
usedto
tosystematically
systematicallytrack
trackbackwards
backwardsto
to
find
findaapossible
possiblecause
causeof
ofaaquality
qualityproblem
problem(or
(or
effect)
effect)
 9-28

Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Control

Charts

Can
Canbebeused
usedto
tomonitor
monitorongoing
ongoingproduction
productionprocess
process
quality
qualityand
andquality
qualityconformance
conformanceto
tostated
statedstandards
standardsof
of
quality
quality
1020
UCL
1010
1000
990
980
LCL

970
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
 9-29

Other Six Sigma Tools

• Failure Mode and Effect Analysis

(DMEA) is a structured approach to
identify, estimate, prioritize, and
evaluate risk of possible failures at
each stage in the process
• Design of Experiments (DOE) a
statistical test to determine cause-and-
effect relationships between process
variables and output
 9-30

Six Sigma Roles and Responsibilities

1. Executive leaders must champion the

process of improvement
2. Corporation-wide training in Six Sigma
concepts and tools
3. Setting stretch objectives for
improvement
4. Continuous reinforcement and rewards
 9-31

The Shingo System: Fail-Safe Design

• Shingo’s argument:
– SQC methods do not prevent defects
– Defects arise when people make errors
– Defects can be prevented by providing
workers with feedback on errors

• Poka-Yoke includes:
– Checklists
– Special tooling that prevents workers from
making errors
 9-32

ISO 9000 and ISO 14000

• Series of standards agreed upon by the

International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
• Adopted in 1987
• More than 160 countries
• A prerequisite for global competition?
• ISO 9000 an international reference for
quality, ISO 14000 is primarily concerned
with environmental management
 9-33

Three Forms of ISO Certification

1. First party: A firm audits itself against

ISO 9000 standards

2. Second party: A customer audits its

supplier

3. Third party: A "qualified" national or

international standards or certifying
agency serves as auditor
 9-34

External Benchmarking Steps

1. Identify those processes needing

improvement

2. Identify a firm that is the world leader in

performing the process

3. Contact the managers of that company

and make a personal visit to interview
managers and workers

4. Analyze data
 9-35

Question Bowl

Approximately what percentage of

every sales dollar is allocated to
the “cost of quality”?
a. Less than 5%
b. About 10%
c. Between 15 and 20 %
d. More than 30%
e. None of the above

Answer: c. Between 15 and 20 % (for cost of

reworking, scrapping, repeated service, etc.)
 9-36

Question Bowl

Which of the following are

classifications of the “cost
of quality”?
a. Appraisal costs
b. Prevention costs
c. Internal failure costs
d. External failure costs
e. All of the above

Answer: e. All of the above

 9-37

Question Bowl

Which of the following are functions of

a quality control department?
a. Testing product designs for reliability
b. Gathering product performance data
c. Planning and budgeting the QC
program
d. All of the above
e. None of the above

Answer: d. All of the above

 9-38

Question Bowl

Which of the following is a Critical

Customer Requirement (CCR) in
the context of a Six Sigma
program?
a. DMAIC
Answer: e. None of the
b. DPMO
above (The CCR is the
c. PCDA
criteria that is used to
d. DOE
define desired quality.
e. None of the above
Processing a loan in 10
days is an example of a
CCR.)
 9-39

Question Bowl

The DMAIC cycle of Six Sigma is

similar to which of the following
quality management topics?
a. Continuous improvement
b. Servqual
c. ISO 9000
d. External benchmarking
e. None of the above

Answer: a. Continuous improvement

 9-40

Question Bowl

The “A” in DMAIC stands for

which of the following?
a. Always
b. Accessibility
c. Analyze
d. Act
e. None of the above

Answer: d. Analyze (Define, Measure,

Analyze, Improve and Control)
 9-41

Question Bowl

Which of the following

analytical tools depict trends
in quality data over time?
a. Flowcharts
b. Run charts
c. Pareto charts
d. Checksheets
e. Cause and effect diagrams

Answer: b. Run charts

 9-42

End of Chapter 9