Internetworking Models

 When networks first came into being, computers could typically

communicate only with computers from the same manufacturer.

 For example, companies ran either a complete DECnet solution or an

IBM solution, never both together.

 In the late 1970s, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference

model was created by the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) to break through this barrier.

 Cont.
 The OSI model was meant to help vendors create interoperable

network devices and software in the form of protocols so that

different vendor networks could work in peaceable accord with

each other.

 Anyway the OSI model is the primary architectural model for

networks.

 It describes how data and network information are

communicated from an application on one computer through the

network media to an application on another computer.

 Cont.
 The OSI reference model breaks this approach into layers.
 A reference model is a conceptual blueprint of how communications
should take place.
 It addresses all the processes required for effective communication
and divides them into logical groupings called layers.
 The OSI model’s primary purpose is to allow different vendors’
networks to interoperate.
 Important benefits for using the OSI layered model

 It divides the network communication process into smaller

and simpler components.
 It allows multiple-vendor development through the
standardization of network components.
 It allows various types of network hardware and software to
communicate.
 Facilitating component development, design, and
troubleshooting.
 OSI
 The OSI is a logical model, not a physical one.
 The OSI has seven different layers, divided into two groups.
 The top three layers define how the applications within the end
stations will communicate with each other as well as with users.
 The bottom four layers define how data is transmitted end to
end.
Upper Layers
 users interact with the computer at
the Application layer and also that
the upper layers are responsible for
applications communicating between
hosts.
 None of the upper layers knows
anything about networking or
network addresses because that’s
the responsibility of the four bottom
layers.
 Lower layers

 These four bottom layers that define how data is transferred through
physical media like wire, cable, fiber optics, switches, and routers.
 These bottom layers also determine how to rebuild a data stream
from a transmitting host to a destination host’s application.
OSI layer functions
OSI
 Layer 1 - The Physical Layer
The Physical layer has two responsibilities:
It sends bits and receives bits. Bits come only in values of 1 or 0.
Communicates directly with the various types of actual
communication media.
Different kinds of media represent these bit values in different ways.
Specific protocols are needed for each type of media to describe the
proper bit patterns to be used, how data is encoded into media signals
and the various qualities of the physical media's attachment interface.
 Layer 2 - The Datalink Layer
The Data link ensures that messages are delivered to the proper
device using hardware addresses and translates messages from
the Network layer into bits for the Physical layer to transmit.
It formats the message into data frames (notice how we are not
using the term segments) and adds a customized header
containing the hardware destination and source address.
This added information forms a sort of capsule that surrounds
the original message hardware destination and source address.
Data Link layer that’s responsible for the actual unique
identification of each device that resides on a local network.

The Data link layer is subdivided into two other sub layers, the
Media Access Control (MAC) and the Logical Link Control (LLC).
Media Access Control (MAC) 802.3:

This defines how packets are placed on the media (cable).

Contention media (Ethernet) access is first come first served
access where everyone shares the same bandwidth.
Physical addressing is an address which is given not by the
software, but the hardware. Every network card has a "MAC"
address which is burnt into the card's eprom (a special memory
chip) and this special address is used to uniquely identify your
computer's network card from all the others on the network.
Logical Link Control (LLC).
This sub layer is responsible for identifying Network layer
protocols and then encapsulating them when they are about to
be transmitted onto the network or decapsulate them when it
receives a packet from the network and pass it onto the layer
above it, which is the Network layer.
An LLC header tells the Data-link layer what to do with a packet
once a frame is received.

The LLC can also provide flow control and sequencing of

control bits.
Data Encapsulation
Data Encapsulation
 A switch in an internetwork

Some common protocols which work at the Data-link layer are:

ARP, RARP
 Layer 3 - The Network Layer
The Network layer is responsible for routing through an
internetwork and for networking addressing.

Responsible for transporting traffic between devices that are

not locally attached. Routers, or other layer-3 devices, are
specified at the Network layer and provide routing services in
an internetwork.
In OSI communications model, the Network layer knows the
address of the neighboring nodes in the network, packages
output with the correct network address information, selects
routes and quality of service and recognizes and forwards to
the Transport layer incoming messages for local host domains.
when a packet is received on a router interface, the destination
IP address is checked.
If the packet isn’t destined for that particular router, it will
look up the destination network address in the routing table.
Once the router chooses an exit interface, the packet will be sent to that
interface to be framed and sent out on the local network.
If the router can’t find an entry for the packet’s destination network in the
routing table, the router drops the packet.
Data and route update packets are the two types of packets used at the
Network layer:

Data packets These are used to transport user data through the
internetwork. Protocols used to support data traffic are called routed
protocols, and IP and IPv6 are key examples.
Route update packets These packets are used to update neighboring routers
about the networks connected to all routers within the internetwork.
Protocols that send route update packets are called routing
protocols.

The most critical ones are RIP, RIPv2, EIGRP, and OSPF.

Route update packets are used to help build and maintain routing
tables.

Routers don’t care at all about where a particular host is located.

They’re only concerned about where networks are located and the
best way to reach them including remote ones.
Routing table used in a router
 Layer 3
Some common protocols which work at the Network layer are:
IP, DHCP, ICMP, IGRP, EIGRP, RIP, RIP2

 For example [Link], this IP address maps to the Network

layer in the OSI model, in other words only the Network layer
deals with or cares about IP addresses in the OSI model.
 Layer 4- The Transport Layer
The Transport layer is responsible for providing mechanisms for
multiplexing upper-layer application, session establishment, data
transfer and tear down of virtual circuits.
It also hides details of any network-dependent information from
the higher layers by providing transparent data transfer.
Services located in the Transport layer both segment and
reassemble data from upper-layer applications and unite it onto
the same data stream.
 The term reliable networking can be used at the Transport layer.
Reliable networking requires that acknowledgments, sequencing,
and flow control will all be used.
 Connection-Oriented Communication

For reliable transport to occur:

 A device that wants to transmit must first establish a
connection-oriented communication session with a remote
device known as a call setup or a three-way handshake.

 Once this process is complete, the data transfer occurs, and

when it’s finished, a call termination takes place to tear down
the virtual circuit.
 The first “connection agreement”
segment is a request for synchronization

 The next segments acknowledge (ACK)

the request and establish connection
parameters—the rules between hosts.

 The final segment is also an ACK, which

notifies the destination host that the
connection agreement has been accepted
and that the actual connection has been
established. Data transfer can now begin.
Sometimes during a transfer, congestion can occur
because a high-speed computer is generating data traffic
a lot faster than the network itself can process it!

A whole bunch of computers simultaneously sending

datagrams through a single gateway.

so the destination can become congested because of

too much traffic for too small a capacity.
 Flow Control

When a machine receives a flood of datagrams too quickly for

it to process. It stores them in a memory section called a buffer.

Flow control prevents a sending host on one side of the

connection from overflowing the buffers in the receiving host.
Reliable data transport employs a connection-oriented
communications session between systems .
The protocols involved ensure that the following will be achieved:
 The segments delivered are acknowledged back to the sender upon
their reception.
 Any segments not acknowledged are retransmitted.
 Segments are sequenced back into their proper order upon arrival at
their destination.
 A manageable data flow is maintained in order to avoid congestion,
overloading, or worse, data loss.

The purpose of flow control is to provide a way for the receiving device to
control the amount of data sent by the sender.
 Characteristics of Connection-Oriented
service
A service is considered connection-oriented if it has the
following characteristics:
 A virtual circuit, or “three-way handshake” is set up.
 It uses sequencing.
 It uses acknowledgments.

 It uses flow control.

 The types of flow control are buffering, windowing, and
congestion avoidance.
 Windows are used to control the amount of outstanding,
unacknowledged data segments.
 If a receiving host fails to receive all the bytes that it should
acknowledge, the host can improve the communication
session by decreasing the window size.
Transport layer reliable delivery
 Layer 5 -Session Layer

The last 3 layers of the OSI model are referred to the

"Upper" layers. These layers are responsible for
applications communicating between hosts. None of the
upper layers know anything about networking or network
addresses.
 Cont.
The Session layer is responsible for setting up, managing
and then tearing down sessions between Presentation
layer entities.
The Session layer also provides dialog control between
devices, or nodes.
It coordinates communication between systems and
serves to organize their communication by offering three
different modes: simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
The session layer basically keeps one application's data
separate from other application's data.
 Layer 6 - Presentation Layer
The Presentation Layer gets its name from its purpose:
It presents data to the Application layer. It's basically a
translator and provides coding and conversion functions.
A successful data transfer technique is to adapt the data
into a standard format before transmission.
Computers are configured to receive this generically
formatted data and then convert the data back into its
native format for reading.
By providing translation services, the Presentation layer
ensures that data transferred from the Application layer
of one system can be read by the Application layer of
another host.
 Cont.

Tasks like data compression, decompression,

encryption and decryption are associated with this
layer.
 Layer 7- Application Layer
The Application layer of the OSI model is where users
communicate with the computer. The Application layer is
responsible for identifying and establishing the
availability of the intended communication partner and
determining if sufficient resources for the intended
communication exist.
The user interfaces with the computer at the application
layer.

FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SMTP and other protocols work on the

first three layers of the OSI model, which obviously
includes the Application layer.
 Questions

1. At which layer is routing implemented, enabling connections and

path selection between two end systems?

2. Which layer defines how data is formatted, presented, encoded, and

converted for use on the network?

3. Which layer is responsible for creating, managing, and terminating

sessions between applications?

4. Which layer is used for reliable communication between end nodes

over the network and provides mechanisms for establishing,

maintaining, and terminating virtual circuits; transport-fault

detection and recovery; and controlling the flow of information?

5. Which layer provides logical addressing that routers will use for path
determination?

6. Which layer combines bits into bytes and bytes into frames, uses MAC
addressing, and provides error detection?

7. Which layer is responsible for keeping the data from different

applications separate on the network?

8. Which layer is represented by frames?

9. Which layer is represented by segments?

10. Which layer is represented by packets?

11. Which layer is represented by bits?
12. Put the following in order of encapsulation:
Packets
Frames
Bits
Segments
13. Which layer segments and reassembles data into a data
stream?
14. What is the bit length and expression form of a MAC address?
15. Which of the following are correct statements
about PDUs?
A. A segment contains IP addresses.
B. A packet contains IP addresses.
C. A segment contains MAC addresses.
D. A packet contains MAC addresses.
Cont.
 Collision Domain
 Collision domain refers to a network scenario where in one device sends a
frame out on a physical network segment forcing every other device on the
same segment to pay attention to it.

 This is bad because if two devices on a single physical segment just happen to
transmit simultaneously, it will cause a collision and require these devices to
retransmit.

 Collision is a situation where each device’s digital signals totally interfere with
one another on the wire.