Unit 2

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) primarily
used in

1. Amplification
2. Logic gates (Digital circuits)
 Contents
• Basic Bipolar Junction Transistor
• Transistor Structures (NPN and PNP )
• Modes of Operation
• Symbol and Conventions
• Current Voltage Characteristics
• Non ideal Transistor
• Leakage current
• Breakdown
• DC analysis of transistor circuit
• CE, CB, CC Configurations
• Basic Transistor action as a switch, as an amplifier
• Transistor Biasing
• Bias Stability
• Different Biasing Circuits
• Understanding Manufacturers Specification
 Bipolar Junction Transistor
• Bipolar because  two types of charge carriers—electrons
and holes—comprise this main current through the
transistor.
• BJT has two junctions: Emitter junction and collector
junction
• Transfer + Resistor
– Transistor has low input resistance and high output resistance.
– We transfer input signal from low input to high output
resistance and achieve amplification
– Hence called transistor
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
• BJT is a silicon crystal doped differently in 3 regions
• BJT has 3 regions
– Collector
– Emitter
– Base
• Three regions are doped differently
 Characteristic of three regions
• Physical properties
– Collector: physically larger than emitter
– Base: thinnest
– Emitter: intermediate thickness
• Electrical properties (doping)
– Emitter heavily doped
– Base lightly doped
– Collector intermediate to emitter and base
 Construction of Bipolar junction transistors
Base region
Emitter-base (very narrow)
junction Lightly doped

Emitter region Collector

Highly doped

Collector region
(physically larger
than emitter
Emitter Moderately
doped
Base Collector-base
junction
Construction of Bipolar junction transistors

NPN BJT shown

• 3 terminals: emitter, base, and collector
• 2 junctions: emitter-base junction (EBJ) and collector-base junction (CBJ)
 Unbiased npn Transistor

NPN BJT shown

• two pn junctions
• Emitter base junction
• Collector base junction
• Depletion region is wider in lightly doped region
• Narrow in heavily doped region
BJT representation as two diodes connected
back to back
Standard Transistor Symbols
Q: Explain the saturation, cutoff and active
modes of transistor
 Biased transistor

• To operate the transistor

– as an amplifier
– or switch (logic circuits)
– the two pn junctions has to be biased properly with external voltages.
• Depending on the external voltage polarity used, there are four ways of
biasing
Region of Emitter junction Collector junction Application Ouptut current
Operation

Active Forward Biased Reverse Biased Amplifier Controlled be input current

Cutoff Reverse biased Reverse biased Off switch Only leakage current flows
from input to output

Saturation Forward biased Forward biased On switch Maximum output current

flows = Vcc/RL
Inverter Reverse biased Forward biased Not used
 Transistor Biasing

• Transistor as Amplifier – Active Region

• Transistor as ON switch – Saturation Region

• Transistor as OFF switch – Cutoff Region

Working of a npn transistor
in Active mode
 Biased Transistor
Circuit connections for active region for
npn and pnp transistor
 Working of a npn transistor
IC = αdc IE + ICBO
IC = αdc IE
Typical value of αdc = 0.96 to
0.995

Minority carrier In many circuits , Ic ≈ IE , αdc = 1

in base (leakage
current (Icbo)

αdc is called emitter to collector current gain

The base current is recombination current

• Base is narrow
• Ib is small
• Ic ≈ Ie
• Ie = Ic + Ib

• Ic / Ib = beta
(typically 100)

• Ic /Ie = alpha
(typically 0.99)
 Working of a npn transistor

• Emitter junction is forward biased by Veb

• Collector junction is forward biased by Vcb.

• Emitter depletion region reduces.

• majority charge carriers move across the junction
• Collector junction is reverse biases.
• Reverse bias junction assists minority carriers.
• Electron move from emitter to collector
Working of pnp and npn
 Equations to remember

p n IC = α IE + ICBO

α is dc current gain

p
n

n
ICBO is called the
p reverse leakage
current
Emitter junction: Forward biased
Collector junction: Reverse biases
 Transistor Voltage Source Connections
and Terminal Voltages
Higher potential

CB junction (RB)

lower potential
n
p
n

NPN
EB junction (FB)

Active
CB junction : Reverse Biased
EB junction : Forward biased
Vcc > Vbb : Active Mode
Vcc < Vbb : Saturation mode
 n
p
n

Region of Operation Emitter junction

Active (E: FB, C: RB) Vcc > Vbb (CB : RB) and Vbb > 0.7 (EB : FB)

Cutoff (E: RB, C: RB) Vcc > vbb (CB : RB and Vbb < 0.7 (EB : FB)
Saturation (E:FB, C:FB) Vcc < Vbb (CB : FB) and Vbb > 0.7 (EB : FB)
Transistor Configurations
 AC signal input

• We bias the transistor so that it operates in

ACTIVE MODE
• For transistor to work as amplifier we have to
give an ac input signal
• Ac input signal can be applied in three ways
Transistor Configurations
 Note
• In all three configurations
– EB junction is FB.
– CB junction is RB
Which configuration is the best for amplifer?
Common emitter for amplifiers
low input resistance
high ouput resistance
high voltage and current gain
 Transistor Characteristic

• Curves that relate transistor current to voltage

• Input characteristics
I
• Output characteristics

V
 Characteristic of
Common Base configuration
Input Characteristic
for CB configuration

Input current

Constant ouput
Input voltage voltage

EB junction is a diode and gives

characteristics similar to diode
Reverse Biased
OFF switch

Input characteristics are obtained

between the input current and
input voltage at constant
output voltage.

It is plotted between VEB and IE of
constant VCB in CB configuration.
Input Characteristic
for CB configuration

Base modulation (Early effect) :

Causes increase in conduction

with an increase in Vcb
 Early effect Collector current increases
Increase in Vcb increases Ic and Ie Ib decreases (as less minority carriers)
as base is narrow
Ic increases
Ie = Ic + Ib
Ie ≈ Ic
Ie increases
Curve shifts to left as Vcb increases
Increase in Vcb (RB voltage) increases the depletion region
Depletion region penetrates more in the lightly doped region
This reduces the base width

Narrow Base region

Less recombination time
Lesser electrons recombine (base current decreases)
More electrons drift from base to collector (1. minority carriers from
base 2. majority carriers diffused from emmiter to base to collector)
so Ic increases
since Ie ≈ Ic , more number of electrons are provided by battery
and hence Ie increases
 Output characteristic in CB mode
Output current

Output voltage

Give Input
current

IC = α IE + ICBO
Output characteristics are
obtained between the output
voltage and output current at
constant input current.

It is plotted between VCB and IC at
constant IE in CB configuration.
Output characteristic in CB mode

As input current
increases
Ic increases
Since Ic=Ie+Ib
 Three regions on the characteristics

• Active region 2. Transistor in active mode

• Saturation region
• Cutoff region

1. Transistor in saturation mode

 n
Three regions n

Vee > 0.7

Ie varies by varying input
Vcb is + ve EB is FB voltage (Vee)

CB is RB
Vee > 0.7
By adjusting Vcc we
adjust Vcb and you
Vcb is – ve can decide which
region you wish to
EB is FB operate
CB is FB
Vee < 0.7, Ie=0 , Ic=Icbo
leakage current (CUTTOFF )
Breakdown region
 Note
• By varying Vcc we can operate in the transistor
in saturation or active mode.
• By applying 0 input bias Vbb<0.7 input juction
is off and transistor operates in cutoff if ouput
juction is Reverse biased.
Characteristics of npn in Common Emitter mode
Characteristics of npn in Common Emitter mode
 Why curve shifts
downwards?

Early effect / Base width modulation

Vce increases
Depletion region increases
Base width decreases
The base current is recombination
current. 
as effective base width decreases
there is less chance for recombination
and base current decreases as reverse
bias increases.
Base current decreases
Output characteristic of CE mode
Common Base configuration
IC = β IE
IC = β IE + ICEO

β : common base configuration

configuration
ICEO : Leakage
IC = β Icurrent
B + ICEO
in CE mode

IC = β IB + ICEO
Three regions on the characteristics in CE
mode
Input Characteristic of CE
Output Characteristic of CE
 Current gain

• Common base

• Common emitter
Q : Derive the relation between α and β
hence find the value of β if α = 0.95
 Q : Derive the relation between α and β
hence find the value of β if α = 0.95

1/ β = 1 + 1/ α

α = 1 , β = infintity

Common base current gain is high than common emitter current gain
Q : Find the value of α if β of the transistor is 49.
Find the value of Ic of the transistor using both α and β rating of
the transistor
Q : A certain transistor has α=.98 , Ico = 5 μA, IB = 100 μA. Find the
values of collector current and emitter current.
IC = α IE + ICO
Common Collector (CC) Configuration
Q : Derive the relation between α and β
hence find the value of β if α = 0.95
Comparison of the configurations

CB

CE
Amplifier

CC
CE Configuration widely used in amplifier circuit ?

CE Configuration is mostly used due to :

• Low input resistance
• High output resistance
• High Voltage Gain
• High Current Gain
• High Power Gain
 Transistor as an amplifier
Amplifier provides voltage amplification
Vcc-IcRc
Vb > 0.7V + Vcc-IcRc

+ Vbb

Vbb=1V Vcc=10V

Vcc, RL , RB --- Base Biasing -- for active mode

Input Vs is to be amplified
A signal source Vs is connected in input circuit.
 When ac signal is not given?
• Without any ac input signal.
• Amplifier is biased by VCC and RL and RB such
that it operates in active region.
• i.e BE junction FB and CB junction RB
• TRANSISTOR IS BIASED IN ACTIVE REGION
• Ib flows, flows , This is dc current
• Vo =Vcc- Ic RL This much fixed dc voltage we
get

Operating point Operating point

(Vce , Ic) Active Region
Decided by biasing
Ib
 +

- +

Vo = Vce
KVL at output
Vcc – IcRL – Vce = 0 -

Active Region
Ouput voltage for dc
Vo=Vce = Vcc – IcRL Ib
 When ac signal is applied at input?
Vb e

ib = ?
AC Signal Vs is superimposed on dc voltage VBE Ri = Vbe / ib
Ib = Vbe / Ri
VBE varies with time. ib = (vi-Vbe)/Ri When ac is applied
ib = vi – Vbe / Ri
ic = β ib

AC ouput voltage vo = ic RL
Why vo = ic RL
Ac collector
KVL at output current vo = vce
Vcc – icRc – vce = 0

vo=vce = Vcc – icRL

DC shift of ac
signal

1. – icRL : indicates the output ac signal is inverted

2. Vcc – icRL : indicates that the ouput ac (– icRL) is dc
shifted by Vcc
 How is input signal magnified
• vo= Vcc – icRL
• Ignore the dc shift for ac analysis

• vo= – icRL
• Transistor amplifier uses a CE configuration
• vo= – βib RL
• Though input base current ib is very small vo is
amplified by βRL
 Example:

To understand how a signal voltage is magnified

Input signal voltage Vs = 20 mV (rms)

Input impedance of the transistor is 1KΩ, output impedance is 10KΩ.
Ib=?
Kvl to input

Ib rms = (Vi rms – Vbe) / Ri

Vbe = 0.7 V

Dc current gain of transistor (β) of

CE transistor is 100

Rms value of the collector current

 Dc current gain of transistor (β) of CE transistor is 100

This Ic flows through RL to give VRL = Ic . RL

therefore rms value of output voltage Vo is approximately:

 Q: Draw and Explain the Transistor as an amplifier

Voltage Amplification :

Thus, Transistor Amplifying action is basically due to its

capability of transferring its signal current from low resistance
circuit to a high resistance circuit

Transfer + Resistor = TRANSISTOR

 Input ac voltage created variation in
Graphical method input current Ib

Corresponding Input current variation with variation in

input ac voltage
Output current
variation
(ic = β ib)

Corresponding
Amplified output
variations
Vo=Vcc – ic RL
 Transistor as a Switch
Input to switch

+V Vo

-V
 Transistor as a Switch
working
Approx Vcc

> Vcc
FB

n
Vo
n
p
n

Input is + V
V > Vcc FB
Base is at high potential than collector
CB and EB are FB
Transistor is in saturation
Ic increases drastically
closed switch , Vo = Vce sat ≈0, Ic(sat)= Vcc / Rc
Vcc-IcRc-Vce=0 , Vcc-IcRc-0=0, Ic=Vcc/Rc
 Transistor as a Switch
working

≈ Vcc

≈ < Vcc
n
p

<0 Input is - V
Base is at low potential than Emitter
CB and EB are RB
Transistor is in cutoff
0V Ic ≈ 0
Ic = Ico (ie leakage current)
Open switch
Concept of Operating Point
 Location of operating point
• Operating point is the value of (Vce , Ic) set by the
biasing circuit (dc power supply and resistors) of
the given circuit in absence of ac signal

• Center of dc load line : amplifier

• Saturation region: on switch
• Cutoff region: off switch
 Operating Point
Values of VCE and Ic in the absence of ac input signal ( Vs ) is
called OPERATING POINT

OPERATING POINT = (VCE , Ic ) values of the given circuit with

the applied DC bias for no input signal
Active region
Saturation (Ic ,VCE )
region
(Ic ,VCE )

cutoff region
(Ic ,VCE )
Example: To find operating point for the given circuit.

To find Ic
Applying KVL to the input section and neglecting VBE
Vbb = Ib Rb - Vbe
 Q point
Contd: To find Vce (Ic, Vce) = (20mA,6V)

Applying KVL to the output section:

Vcc – Ic Rc – VcE = 0 Ic=20mA

Vce=6V

Operating point defined by :

Ic = 20 mA and VcE = 6V
(Ic, Vce) = (20mA,6V)
Q: Explain the DC load line analysis of a
transistor, Dependency of Q point ,
temperature , β
 DC Operating Point
Dc biasing sets
Q point

Dc biasing
circuit : Vcc,
RL , RB Q2
Ib

To set Q point
in desired
region
(VCE , Ic )

Q point : Quiscent point : Vce , Ic , Ib values for no ac signal condition

What is DC Load Line ?
For the given BJT circuit

DC load line is a graph that gives all the possible combination of Ic and Vce

for a given amplifier that would occur with variation in input base current
Q point in
active region
 Saturation point :
How to plot dc load (Vce=0, Ic=Vcc/Rc)
line
• It is a line joining the
cutoff point and the
saturation point of
the given circuit

Cutoff point :
(Vce=Vcc, Ic=0)
Example : Draw the DC load line for given circuit

Vcc /Rc

Vcc
 Theory of DC Load Line

B
 The three regions on DC load line
• It is a graphical representation of all the possible
(Vce , Ic ) values that would occur if base current changes
Saturation Region

Active Region

Cutoff Region
A

B
Recommended position of Q point on DC Load Line for amplifier

(VCE , Ic )
Input signal waveshape is retained
Output current Input current
Ic Ib

Output voltage
Vce

ic = βib , vce = -icRc

For Amplifier transistor has to be biased in
active regions

Q point in
active region

Q point in saturation
Q point in cutoff region negative peak
region positive peak clipped off
clipped off
DC Load Line
• It is a straight line drawn on the output
characteristic of the transistor.
• DC Load Line is used for analyzing the
performance of an AMPLIFIER,
• It is a graph of Collector current (Ic) versus Collector
Emitter voltage (Vce) for a given value of Rc and Vcc.

• It is a graphical representation of all the possible

operating points for the given circuit with the
given DC biasing.
Numerical : Draw the DC load line for given
Vcc /Rc circuit

Vcc
How to plot a DC load line?
To find the Q point for previous problem?

Q point : (Ic , Vce )

To find Ic

Applying KVL to the input section

VBB = IB RB + VBE
To find the Q point for previous problem?

To find Vce

Applying KVL to the output section:

 Stabilization of Q points
(Which is the best biasing circuit and why?)
Q: Dependency of Q point on temperature and β

STABILIZATION of Q point
OPERATING POINT is the particular (Ic ,VCE ) value for
zero ac signal values

(Ic ,VCE )
If either of the Vce or Ic change
the operating point is shifted.
 Causes of unstabilization?
• A transistor is said to be unstabilized when its operating point
is shifted, due to changes in collector current.

• The Collector current in a transistor changes rapidly due to

following reasons:

1. Inherent variations of transistor parameters:

If the transistor is replaced by another one of the same type.
(Because no two transistor can have same transistor
parameters (i.e. β)

2. The temperature changes affects Ic.

How does Temperature change affect Ic.

Ic = βIB + ICEO

Leakage current
depends on
temperature

Value depends
on BJT used

Self destruction of transistor if transistor is

unstabilized
 How does Temperature change affect Ic.
Ic = βIB + ICEO
• Leakage current Ico increases due to increase in temperature.
• Ico is a strong function of temperature. A rise of 10oC doubles the Ico and
Ic
• Increase in Ico increases Ic .
• Rise in Ic produces heat within the transistor and raises the transistor temperature further
and this further increases Ico.
• Rise in Temp. further increases Ic.

• Rise in Ic further increases Temp. , Temp. rise further increases Ico ,

increase in Ico futher increases Ic and hence temp and so on.

Cumulative Effect: THERMAL RUNAWAY

The effect is cumulative and in few seconds the Ic may become so
large enough to burn the transistor

Self destruction of transistor if transistor is unstabilized

 Operation point stabilization

The process of making operating point independent

of temperature changes or inherent variation in
transistor parameters is called STABILIZATION
TRANSISTOR BIASING
 Transistor Biasing Circuit

• Sets the operating point

– Active region : Amplifier
• Stabilizes the operating point
– Against transistor parameter variation
– Against temperature variation
 Requirements of Transistor Biasing Circuit ?
1. It should ensure proper zero signal Ic and VcE (Quisent Point)

i.e. operating point should be established in the center

of the active region of the characteristics, so that
signal may not cutoff at any part.

2. It should make the operating point independent of

transistor parameters.
So that it does not shift when the transistor is replaced
with another of the same type in the circuit.
3. Stabilize the collector current against temperature
variation.
 Different Biasing Circuits

1. Fixed Biasing or Base Resistor Bias.

2. Collector to base Biasing.
3. Voltage divider biasing
 Circuit diagram

Rb connected to
collector terminal

Voltage divider is the

Rb separated into R1 best biasing circuit
and R2 Provides stabilization
to the operating
point
 Theory question : Analysis of the given
biasing circuit
Operating Point:

To find Ic and VCE

To find Ic ?
Apply KVL to the input side and find IB

Find IC by equation: Ic = β IB
Find VCE by applying KVL to the outer loop
Justify how the Vce and Ic is stabilized against
temperature and beta variations
 Fixed Bias (Base Resistor Biasing )
1. In this biasing a high valued resistor is connected between
the supply and base of the transistor.

2. The Base emitter junction is forward biased and the base

collector junction is reverse biased by the supply voltage Vcc.

3. For a pnp transistor the negative

end of the supply is to be
connected to the Rc and Rb.

Q : Draw and Explain Base resistor

method of biasing
To calculate Ic :

Ic = βIB + ICEO

Neglecting , ICEO
Ic = βIB

To calculate VcE :
Apply KVL to outer loop:

Vcc = IcRc + VcE

Operating point : (Ic , VCE )
VcE = Vcc - IcRc
 Advantages of Fixed Bias:
• Simple in construction
Only two resistors and a battery is needed
Calculations are simple
• Easy to fix the operation point anywhere in
the active region of the characteristic.
By simply changing the value of Rb.

Q : Draw and Explain Base resistor

method of biasing
 Disadvantages of Fixed Bias:
• Operating point can be fixed in the center of
the active region.

But it miserably fails in the other two

requirements of the biasing circuit.

• Operating point is not stable w.r.t temperature

rise and transistor parameter β
Q : Draw and Explain Base resistor
method of biasing
 temperature increases Temperature increases
Ic = βIB Ic increased and this caused VcE
to decrease
Ic = βIB + ICEO Ico increases
To stabilize Ic , Ib has to reduce

Ic = βIB + ICEO Ic increases Ic = βIB + ICEO

VcE = Vcc - IcRc VcE decreases

Vbe =0.7 AND Vcc is constant

However Ib remains constant

Ib cannot automatically reduce Ic

There has to be a provision so that increase in Ico there should be

a decrease in Ib hence Ic stabilizes
 Collector to Base Biasing
1. In this biasing a very high value resistance Rb is connected
between the collector and base, and Rc is connected
between Supply voltage and collector of transistor .
2. The base current Ib feedbacks from the output.
The base current Ib depends upon the collector voltage.
 Analysis of Collector to base bias
To calculate Ic :
Apply KVL to inner loop:
Collector to Base Biasing
To calculate VcE :
Apply KVL to outer loop:
Vcc - (Ic + IB ) Rc - VcE = 0

Operating point : (Ic , VCE )

Collector to Base Biasing
Vce

Vbe Vce

Vbe

Ib = (VcE– VBE ) / Rb
Ib = (VcE– 0.7 ) / Rb
 Advantages of collector to base bias

Tendency of the circuit to stabilize the operating

point against temperature variations and
transistor parameter variations

HOW ??
 Advantages of collector to base bias
Stabilizes the operationg point with increase in β and Ico due to
the change in temperature.
Ic = βIB + ICEO
Ib = (VcE– VBE ) / Rb
Ib = (VcE– 0.7 ) / Rb

As Ic increases
Vce decreases
and hence Ib
decreases

Vce=Vcc-(β+1)IcRc

As beta increases
Ib decreases
 Advantages of collector to base bias

• Ic depends on Ib.
• Decrease in Ib reduces the original increase in Ic
(Negative feedback).
• Therefore the circuit maintains a stable value of
collector current, keeping Q point fixed.
Collector to Base bias is seldom used ?

• The resistor RB also provides ac feedback.

This reduces the voltage gain of the amplifier.

At base :

+ =
Reduces overall gain of amplifier
Attenuated
Original input Feedback input signal
signal signal

Ac feedback from collector to base

vo

vi
 Voltage Divider Bias
• Most widely used biasing circuit.

Voltage divider bias

Q : Draw and Explain Voltage Divider
method of biasing
To find the operating point

Simplify the given

circuit

Vth = Vcc R2/(R1+R2)

Thevenins Rth = R1 R2/(R1+R2)

equivalent circuit
Vth = Vcc R2/(R1+R2)

Rth = R1 R2/(R1+R2)
To find operating point (Vce, Ic)
To find Ic

To find Ib

Apply kvl at input

Vth – Ib Rth – Vbe – Ie Re = 0

Ie ≈ Ic = β Ib

Vth – Ib Rth – Vbe – β Ib Re = 0

Ib = (Vth – Vbe )/(Rth + β Re)

To find operating point (Ic, Vce)

Operating point : (Ic , VCE )

Ib = (Vth – Vbe )/(Rth + β Re)

 Advantage

Voltage divider circuit stabilizes the operating point

against β and temperature variations
To find operating point (Vce, Ic)
To stabilize Ic against β sariations

Increase in β has to be compensated by a

corresponding decrease in Ib

Ib = (Vth – Vbe-Ve )/(Rth + β Re)

If β increases / decreases Ib decreases/increases

and stabilizes Ic
To find operating point (Vce, Ic)
To stabilize Ic against Ico

Increase in Ico increases Ic

Since Ie≈Ic Ie increases

Ve increases

Ib = (Vth – Vbe-Ve )/(Rth + β Re)

Vth , Vbe are constance

If Ie increases, Ve increases

It causes Ib to decreases

Increase in Ic compensated with

decrease in Ib
 Stability factor
To compare different biasing circuits, stability factor S is defined as the rate of
change of collector current with respect to the ICO, keeping bdc and VCE constant
If β=100 , S=101, Ic=[Link]

A small increase in the leakage current Ico causes a 101

times increase in Ic
The base resistor biasing method is thermally unstable

Stability factor should not be high it leads to thermal unstability.

Stability factor cannot be unity

S= (1+β)
1+β(Rc/Rc+Rb)

S < 1+ β

Provides better stability then base resistor biasing

Voltage Divider circuit
Problems
1. For the circuit shown plot the DC load line
Vcc = 12.5 V, Rc = 2.5 kohm
1. For the circuit shown plot the DC load line
Vcc = 12.5 V, Rc = 2.5 kohm

Ic = Vcc/ Rc

Vce=Vcc
2.

(Ic ,VCE )
Rc = 4 kohm, Icq=1mA, Vcc = 10 V

Question: Operating point (Ic, Vce)

2.

Rc = 4 kohm, Icq=1mA, Vcc = 10 V

3.
4.

DC Load Line
4.

DC Load Line
4.

Operating Point : (Ic, Vce)

5.

Ie=Ic+Ib

Ib Ic
5.

Ie=Ic+Ib

Ib Ic
5.
6.

Vth
 6.

Vth
Quiescent point : Operating point (Ic, Vce)
6. To find Ic:
6. To find Vce:

Quiscent Point = (1.228mA, 2.326V)

7.
7.
 Frequency response of BJT amplifier
• Performance of BJT amplifier for different frequencies for a constant
input ac voltage amplitude
• It tells us about the range of input frequency over which an amplifier
can amplify
• It is a plot of Voltage gain versus frequency
 AC output is dc
Why does Frequency shifted

affect BJT amplifier

• BJT amplifier
AC input may be
– Coupling capacitor dc shifted

– Bypass capacitor
– Parasitic capacitance
R1,R2,Rc,Re,Vcc = biasing circuit (sets Q point)

Once Q point is set it should not be shifted by any

other dc voltage arriving at input
Coupling capacitors (Cc) ensure that Q point does not shift
from the Q point location set by the biasing circuit
Capacitors basically prevent the Q point from shifting due to the presence of any
dc signal in the ac at the base terminal or negative feedback across Re
 BJT amplifier
Characteristic+ of capacitor
Allows ac current
rejects dc current
Cc: Coupling capacitors
So that the dc signal component in input
ac signal do not reach base and hence alter
the Q point.

Ce : bypass capacitor
so that if it is not connected the ac
voltage across Re is feedback to input and
this reduces gain of amplifier.

Connecting Ce, provides a bypass to the ac

current of Re and allows only dc current to If Ce is absent
flow thorugh Re Ac voltage ve is fed to input
(Negative feedback)
Purpose of Re is basically to set the Q point Ve effectively decreases vi
applied to base
 Case 1 Case 2
without bypass capacitor with bypass capacitor

Ac current through Re
Re provides negative ac gets bypassed through Ce
feedback
This reduces the gain of This eliminates the
amplifier negative feedback of Re

Including Ce increases
gain of amplifier
Including Ce in the circuit however also decreases the
bandwidth due to additional capacitance
 Why does Frequency
affect BJT amplifier
Gain is less due to
coupling and bypass Gain is less due to
capacitor Parasitic capacitance
 At low frequency : Cc high impedance to ac signal

Attenuates the input ac signal reaching base is reduced

Gain is less due to Amplifier gives less output, gain reduces

coupling and bypass
capacitor Also At low frequency : Ce acts as open circuit

Re offers negative ac feedback to the input

This decreases gain

At high frequency : parasitic capacitance reduces gain

Gain is less due to

Parasitic capacitance
 Parasitic capacitance
At high frequencies, internal transistor junction
Capacitance comes into play.

This decreases gain and introduces phase shift

as signal frequency increases.

At low frequencies capacitances have high

reactance, hence do not offer feedback and
hence do not affect the system.

They look like open circuit at low frequency.

As frequency goes up, the internal capacitive

reactance goes down

Start giving feedback and hence reduces gain

Feedback reduces gain of amplifier
 Frequency response of BJT amplifier
• Amplifiers have a relatively constant gain over a
range of frequency.
• This band of frequencies is referred to as
BANDWIDTH of the circuit
• within its bandwidth, the values of voltage
gain , current gain and power gain are
calculated.
• These values are referred to as midband
gain values, and are designated as  , and  .
 • A frequency-response curve is a graphical
representation of the relationship between
amplifier gain and operating frequency.
• This particular curve illustrates the
relationship between power gain and
frequency.
Vo
P = Vrms Irms
Vmax P/2 = (Vrms Irms)/2
P/2 = (Vrms/ sqrt2)* (Irms/sqrt2)
0.707Vmax

AP/2 = (Vrms/ sqrt2) or (Irms/sqrt2)

• The circuit power gain remains relatively constant across
the midband range of frequencies.

•As operating frequency decreases from the midband area of the

curve, a point is reached where the power gain begins to drop off.
The frequency at which power gain equals 50% of its midband
value is called the lower cutoff frequency ( FL ).

•As operating frequency increases from the midband area of the

curve, a point is reached where the power gain begins to drop off
again. The frequency at which power gain equals 50% of its
midband value is called the upper cutoff frequency (FH).
 Fc1 = lower cutoff frequency Fc2 = upper cutoff frequency

Fc1 and fc2 are frequencies at which the power gain decreases by half of max power gain
Fc1 and fc2 are frequencies at which the voltage gain decreases by 0.707Vmax

The geometric center frequency ( ) of an amplifier is the geometric average

of the cutoff frequencies, found as

Power gain is maximum when an amplifier is operated at its geometric center frequency.
As frequency varies above (or below)  , the power gain decreases slightly. 
• Amplifier with bypass capacitor provides high
gain reduced bandwidth as compared to
amplifier without bypass capacitor.
 Figure of merit
With bypass capacitor
Gain is high Without bypass capacitor
Bandwidth is low Gain is low
Bandwidth is high

A figure‐of‐merit for the amplifier is its gain‐bandwidth product defined as

GB = Gain x Bandwidth (GB product of amplifier remains constant)