Research Methods

Research Methods

Dr.
Dr. Romiro
Romiro Bautista
Bautista
Types of Research Methods:
1. Basic research – aimed at obtaining data
used to formulate and expand theories
and the frontiers of knowledge without
regard to practical application
- not designed towards the
solution of practical problems.
2. Applied research – aims to solve an
immediate practical problem at appropriate
level of complexity.
- may result in a new technology or new
strategy which is better or more effective.
Example:
- Research to improve learning
- Research to increase the production of food.
1. Quantitative research-involving objective
measurements and statistical data analysis
to understand and explain a phenomenon.

2. Qualitative research – focuses on

understanding a social phenomenon from
the perspective of those involved as
participants in the research.
- Qualitativeresearchers face many choices related to data collection
ranging from grounded theory practice, narratology, storytelling,
classical ethnography, or shadowing. Qualitative methods are also
loosely present in other methodological approaches, such as action
research or actor-network theory. Forms of the data collected can
include interviews and group discussions, observation and reflection
field notes, various texts, pictures, and other materials.

- Qualitative research often categorizes data into patterns as the primary

basis for organizing and reporting [Link] researchers
typically rely on the following methods for gathering information:
Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation, Field Notes,
Reflexive Journals, Structured Interview, Semi-structured Interview,
Unstructured Interview, and Analysis of documents and materials.
The ways of participating and observing can vary
widely from setting to setting. Participant
observation is a strategy of reflexive learning, not
a single method of [Link] participant
observation researchers typically become
members of a culture, group, or setting, and adopt
roles to conform to that setting. In doing so, the
aim is for the researcher to gain a closer insight
into the culture's practices, motivations and
emotions. It is argued that the researchers' ability
to understand the experiences of the culture may
be inhibited if they observe without participating
Some distinctive qualitative methods are the use of focus
groups and key informant interviews. The focus group
technique involves a moderator facilitating a small group
discussion between selected individuals on a particular
topic. This is a particularly popular method in market
research and testing new initiatives with users/workers.

One traditional and specialized form of qualitative research

is called cognitive testing or pilot testing which is used in
the development of quantitative survey items. Survey
items are piloted on study participants to test the
reliability and validity of the items.
Different research approaches that qualitative researchers
used include the following:

[Link]/generic/pragmatic qualitative research - which

involves using an eclectic approach taken up to best
match the research question at hand.

[Link] research - used for investigating cultures by

collecting and describing data that is intended to help in
the development of a theory. This method is also called
"ethnomethodology" or "methodology of the people".

An example of applied ethnographic research is the study of

a particular culture and their understanding of the role
of a particular disease in their cultural framework.
- is a qualitative research design aimed at
exploring cultural phenomena.
- the resulting field study or a case report
reflects the knowledge and the system of
meanings in the lives of a cultural group.
- an ethnography is a means to represent
graphically and in writing, the culture of a
people.
Data collection methods are meant to capture the "social
meanings and ordinary activities" of people (informants)
in "naturally occurring settings" that are commonly
referred to as "the field."
The goal is to collect data in such a way that the researcher
imposes a minimal amount of their own bias on the data.
Multiple methods of data collection may be employed to
facilitate a relationship that allows for a more personal
and in-depth portrait of the informants and their
community. These can include participant observation,
field notes, interviews, and surveys.
Interviews are often taped and later
transcribed, allowing the interview to
proceed unimpaired of note-taking, but with
all information available later for full
analysis.
Secondary research and document analysis are
also employed to provide insight into the
research topic.
- anthropology today focuses more on the
study of urban settings and the use of
kinship charts is seldom employed.
In order to make the data collection and
interpretation transparent, researchers creating
ethnographies often attempt to be "reflexive.“
Reflexivity - to the researcher's aim to explore the
ways in which researcher's involvement with a
particular study influences, acts upon and informs
such research. Despite these attempts of
reflexivity, no researcher can be totally unbiased,
which has provided a basis to criticize
ethnography.
Traditionally, the ethnographer focuses attention on
a community, selecting knowledgeable
informants who know the activities of the
community well. These informants are typically
asked to identify other informants who represent
the community, often using chain [Link]
process is often effective in revealing common
cultural denominators connected to the topic
being studied. Ethnography relies greatly on up-
close, personal experience. Participation rather
than just observation is one of the keys to this
[Link] is very useful in social
research.
3. Grounded Theory - is an inductive type of research, based or
"grounded" in the observations or data from which it was
developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including
quantitative data, review of records, interviews,
observation and surveys.

4. Phenomenology - describes the "subjective reality" of an

event, as perceived by the study population; it is the study
of a phenomenon.

5. Philosophical Research - is conducted by field experts within

the boundaries of a specific field of study or profession,
the best qualified individual in any field of study to use an
intellectual analysis, in order to clarify definitions, identify
ethics, or make a value judgment concerning an issue in
their field of study their lives.
6. Critical Social Research - used by a researcher to understand how
people communicate and develop symbolic meanings.

7. Ethical Inquiry - an intellectual analysis of ethical problems. It

includes the study of ethics as related to obligation, rights, duty,
right and wrong, choice etc.

8. Foundational Research - examines the foundations for a science,

analyzes the beliefs, and develops ways to specify how a
knowledge base should change in light of new information.

9. Historical Research - allows one to discuss past and present events in

the context of the present condition, and allows one to reflect and
provide possible answers to current issues and problems. Historical
research helps us in answering questions such as: Where have we
come from, where are we, who are we now and where are we
going?
- evaluation and synthesis of evidence
in order to establish facts and draw
conclusions about past events.
- Gives solutions to contemporary problems
- Provides an understanding of present and
future trends
- Understand relative importance and
interactions within cultures
- Re-evaluation of data
 Scope of Historical Research

- General education history

- History of educational legislation
- Historical biographies of major
contributors to education
- History of major branches of education
- Institutional history of education
- Cultural History of Education
- History of educational planning and policy
- Historical critiques of education
- Comparative history of international
education
- History of contemporary problems in
education
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
DESIGN
1. Experimental

- the investigator has some control over what will happen

to the subjects by systematically imposing or withholding
specified conditions.

- have particular purpose: to investigate cause-and-effect

relationships between manipulated conditions and
measured outcomes.
2. Nonexperimental

- no manipulation of conditions.

- the investigator makes observations or

obtains measures from subjects to describe
something that has occurred.

- not intended to show cause and effect

relationships.
Experimental :
a. true experimental

b. quasi-experimental

c. single subject
Nonexperimental:

a. descriptive

b. correlational

c. survey

d. expost facto
Experimental designs:
a. True experimental design
- the unique characteristic is
random assignment of subjects to
different groups, with random
assignment every subject has an
equal chance of being in each group.
random assignment is a powerful
technique for controlling the
subject-characteristics threat to
internal validity, a major
consideration in educational research.
True-experimental design include:
- pre-test/post-test control group
design
- Solomon four-group design
- post-test only control group design
b. quasi-experimental design
- approximates the true
experimental type.
- the purpose is to determine the
cause and effect, and there is direct
manipulation of conditions.
- no random assignment of
subjects.
example:
involves several classes or schools that
can be used to determine the effect of
curricular materials or teaching methods.
The classes are “intact”, already organized
for an instructional purpose. The classes
are not assigned randomly and have
different teachers. It is possible to give
an experimental treatment to some of the
classes and treat other classes as controls.
Quasi-experimental design include:
- Time series design (may include panel
design)
- Equivalent time samples design
- Equivalent materials design
- non-equivalent control group (comparison
group) design
- Counterbalanced design
- Separate sample pre-test/post-test design
- Multiple time-series design
- Regression/discontinuity analysis
c. single-subject designs
- the researcher may be
interested in one or two subjects not
large groups of subjects.
- offer an alternative by
specifying methods that can be used
with a single individual or just a few
subjects and still allow reasonable
cause and effect conclusions.
 - similar to quasi-experimental,
there is direct manipulation but no
random assignment.
- are adaptations of the basic
time-series design, the difference is
that the data are collected and
analyzed for only one subject at a
time.
 - most commonly used to study
the changes in behavior an individual
exhibits after exposure in an
intervention or treatment of some
sort.
- developed primarily in special
education where most of the usual
instrumentation is inappropriate.
Questions for critiquing:
Purpose:
Is it logical?
Is it convincing?
Is it sufficient?
Do the authors show how the
results of the study would have
important implications for theory,
practice or both?
Definitions:
Are major terms clearly defined?
If not, are they clear in context?

Prior research:
Has previous work on the topic been
covered adequately?
Is it clearly connected to the
present study?
Hypothesis:
Are they stated? Implied? Appropriate
for the study?
Sampling:
What type of sample is used?
Is it a random sample? If not, is it
adequately described?
Do the authors recommend or imply
generalizing to a population? If so, is the
target population clearly indicated?
Instrumentation:
Is it adequately described?
Is evidence of adequate reliability
presented?
Is evidence of validity provided?
How persuasive is the evidence or
the argument for validity of
inferences made from the
instrument?
Internal validity:
What threats are evident?
Were they controlled? If not, were they
discussed?
Data analysis:
Are data summarized and reported
appropriately?
Are descriptive and inferential statistics
(if any) used appropriately?
Are the statistics interpreted correctly?
Results:
Are they clearly presented?
Is the written summary consistent with
the data reported?
Interpretations/Discussion:
Do the authors place the study in a
broader context?
Do they recognize limitations of the study,
especially with regard to population and
ecological generalizing of results?
 Non-experimental designs
a. Descriptive
- describes an existing phenomenon by
using numbers to characterize individuals
or a group.
- it assess the nature of existing
conditions.
- there is no manipulation of
treatments or subjects
- the researcher measures things as
they are.
Descriptive research design can provide data
for monitoring and evaluating policies and
programs. These design are concerned
with how to answer questions such as:
- how many?
- how much?
- how efficient?
- how effective?
- how adequate?
b. Correlational designs
- is concerned with assessing
relationships between two or more
phenomena.
- usually involves a statistical
measure of the degree of
relationship. The relationship
measured is a statement about the
degree of association between the
variables of interest.
 - a positive correlation
means that high values of one
variable are associated with high
values on a second variable.

Examples:
- relationship between height and
weight, between IQ scores and
achievement test scores, between
self-concept and grades
 - negative correlation
- high values of one
variable are associated with low
values of a second variable.
Example:
between exercise and heart failure,
between successful test performance
and feelings of incompetence and
between absence from school and
school achievement.
Three sets of data showing different
directions and degrees of correlation
r=+100 r=-100 r=0
x y x y x y
5 5 5 1 2 1
6 4 4 2 5 2
7 3 3 3 3 3
8 2 2 4 1 4
1 1 1 5 4 5
Basic purposes of correlational
research methodologies:
1. To help explain important human
behaviors ( explanatory studies)
2. To predict outcomes (prediction
studies)
Explanatory studies - often
investigate a number of variables
they believe are related to a more
complex variable (such as motivation
and learning).
Prediction studies –if a relationship of
sufficient magnitude exist between
two variables, it becomes possible to
predict a score on either variable if a
score on the other is known.
More complex correlational techniques:
1. Multiple regression – is a technique that
enables researchers to determine a
correlation between a criterion variable
and the best combination of two or more
predictor variables.
2. Coefficient of Multiple correlation
-indicates the strength of the
correlation between the combination of
the predictor variables and the criterion
variables.
3. Coefficient of determination
- the square of the correlation
between one predictor variable and a
criterion variable.
4. Discriminant function analysis
5. Factor analysis – is a technique that
allows a researcher to determine if
many variables can be describe by a
few factors.
6. Path analysis – is used to test the
possibility of a causal connection
among three or more variables.
Pearson-Product-Moment Correlation coefficient ®
is a linear correlation necessary to find the
degree of the association of two sets of
variables, X and Y. This is the most commonly
used measure of correlation to determine the
relationship of two sets of variables
quantitatively.
The steps in computing Pearson
Product – Moment Correlation
Coefficient (rxy) are as follows:
1. Find the sum of X and Y
2. Square all X and Y values
3. Sum X2 and Y2
4. Multiply X and Y
5. Get the sum of the product XY
6. Apply the formula
Interpretation of Correlation Value
To interpret the coefficient correlation ( r )
value obtained, the following classification may be
applied:
An r from 0.00 to + 0.20 denotes negligible
correlation.
An r from + 0.21 to + 0.40 denotes low or slight
correlation
An r from + 0.41 to + 0.70 denotes moderate
correlation
An r from + 0.71 to + 0.90 denotes high correlation
An r from + 0.91 to + 0.99 denotes very high
correlation
An r from + 1.00 denotes perfect correlation
c. Survey
- the investigator selects a sample of
subjects and administers a questionnaire
or conducts interviews to collect data.
- usually used in educational research to
describe attitudes, beliefs, opinions and
other types of information.
- describe the frequency of demographic
characteristics or traits held, explore
relationships between different factors or
delineate the reasons for particular
practices.
Three major characteristics of survey:
1. Information is collected from a group of
people in order to describe some aspects
or characteristics of the population of
which a group is a part.
2. The main way in which the information is
collected is through asking questions, the
answers to these questions by the
members of the group constitute the
data of the study.
3. Information is collected from a
sample rather than from every
member of the population.
 Why are surveys
conducted?
- To describe the characteristics of a
population.
 Types of Surveys

1. Cross-sectional surveys
- collects information from a sample
that has been drawn from a
predetermined population.
2. Longitudinal surveys
- collects information at different
points in time in order to study changes
over time.
 Three longitudinal designs
commonly employed in survey
research:
1. Trend study – different samples from the same
population are surveyed at different points in time.
2. Cohort study – a specific population is followed over a period
of time.
3. Panel study – the researcher selects a sample right at the
beginning of his/her study. She then surveys the same
individuals at different times during the course of the
survey. Since the researcher is studying the same
individuals, she can note changes in their characteristics
or behavior and explore the reasons for these changes.
d. Ex Post Facto
- is used to explore possible causal
relationship among variables that cannot be
manipulated by the researcher.
- the investigator compares two or more
samples that are comparable except for a
specified factor. The possible causes are studied
after they have occurred. Rather than
manipulating what will happen to subjects as in
experimental designs, the researcher focuses on
what has happened differently for comparable
groups of subjects, then explores if the subjects
in each group are differently for comparable
groups of subjects.