SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
MADE BY : Nishika Mamgain
Class: XII B
SUBJECT : GENERAL STUDIES
SUBMITTED TO : Deepshikha Cutler Daniel
ACKNOWLED
GMENT
I would like to sincerely and profusely thank my General Studies
teacher Mrs. Deepshikha Cutler Daniel
for her able guidance and vital support in completing my
project.
I would also like to extend my gratitude to our Principal and
Vice-Principal for providing me with all
the facility that was required to successfully complete this
project.
At last I would also like to thank my family and friends for
providing me their full support and motivation.
Introduction
Science, any system of knowledge that is concerned with the
physical world and its phenomena and that entails unbiased
observations and systematic experimentation. In general, a
science involves a pursuit of knowledge covering general
truths or the operations of fundamental laws.
Science can be divided into different branches
based on the subject of study. The physical sciences study
the inorganic world and comprise the fields
of astronomy, physics, chemistry, and the Earth sciences.
The Biological sciences such as biology and medicine study
the organic world of life and its processes. Social
sciences like anthropology and economics study the social
and cultural aspects of human behaviour.
The nature of science
Science investigations use diverse methods and do not
always use the same set of procedures to obtain data. New
technologies advance scientific knowledge. Scientific
inquiry is characterized by a common set of values that
include : logical thinking, precision, open-mindedness,
objectivity, skepticism, replicability of results, and honest
and ethical reporting of findings.
The discourse practices of science are organized around
disciplinary domains that share exemplars for making
decisions regarding the values, instruments, methods,
models, and evidence to adopt and use. Scientific
investigations use a variety of methods, tools, and
techniques to revise and produce new knowledge.
Science knowledge is based on empirical evidence. It
disciplines share common rules of evidence used to evaluate
explanations about natural systems. It also includes the
process of coordinating patterns of evidence with current
theory. The arguments are strengthened by multiple lines of
evidence supporting a single explanation.
Scientific explanations can be probabilistic. Most
scientific knowledge is quite durable but is, in principle,
subject to change based on new evidence and/or
reinterpretation of existing evidence. Scientific
argumentation is a mode of logical discourse used to clarify
the strength of relationships between ideas and evidence that
may result in revision of an explanation.
Theories and laws provide explanations in science, but
theories do not with time become laws or facts. A scientific
theory is a substantiated explanation of some aspect of the
natural world, based on a body of facts that has been
repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment,
and the science community validates each theory before it is
accepted. If new evidence is discovered that the theory does
not accommodate, the theory is generally modified in light
of this new evidence. Models, mechanisms, and
explanations collectively serve as tools in the development
of a scientific theory. Laws are statements or descriptions of
the relationships among observable phenomena. Scientists
often use hypotheses to develop and test theories and
explanations.
The Progress Of Science
The most obvious and the most distinctive feature of the
History of Civilization, during the last fifty years, is the
wonderful increase of industrial production by the
application of machinery, the improvement of old technical
processes and the invention of new ones, accompanied by an
even more remarkable development of old and new means of
locomotion and intercommunication.
By this rapid and vast multiplication of the
commodities and conveniences of existence, the general
standard of comfort has been raised; the ravages of
pestilence and famine have been checked; and the natural
obstacles, which time and space offer to mutual intercourse,
have been reduced in a manner, and to an extent, unknown to
former ages.
The diminution or removal of local ignorance and prejudice,
the creation of common interests among the most widely
separated peoples, and the strengthening of the forces of the
organization of the commonwealth against those of political
or social anarchy, thus effected, have exerted an influence on
the present and future fortunes of mankind the full
significance of which may be divined, but cannot, as yet, be
estimated at its full value.
This revolution–for it is nothing less–in the
political and social aspects of modern civilization has been
preceded, accompanied, and in great measure caused, by a
less obvious, but no less marvelous, increase of natural
knowledge, and especially of that part of it which is known as
Physical Science, in consequence of the application of
scientific method to the investigation of the phenomena of the
material world.
The Scientific Attitude
For anyone who has studied a scientific discipline to an
advanced level, the ‘scientific attitude’ concept will feel
familiar. Universities thoroughly outline the principles of
good academic conduct, such as integrity, honesty and
ethics, and warn against plagiarism and other
misdemeanors. The early chapters of the book retread much
of this ground.
McIntyre explores examples where adherence to
the scientific attitude through rigorous study, respect for
evidence, critical thinking and openness to new, well-
founded ideas have resulted in successful scientific
advancements. These are juxtaposed against studies where
the scientific attitude is clearly absent and are therefore, by
his definition, not scientific, and bear similarities to the
approaches commonly seen in pseudoscience.
However, he takes the somewhat reductive viewpoint that
bad science arises primarily due to a lack of the scientific
attitude, ignoring some of the realities of working in a
scientific field. Funding agencies and universities only wish
to support successful research, journals only value novel and
ground-breaking studies and professional competition is
fierce. Unfortunately, scientists are not always immune to
this pressure and a deeper discussion of these issues would
have been valuable.
Likewise, it would be worthwhile to discuss where the
scientific attitude is applied. Should it just include those
who conduct research? This is particularly relevant when
regarding topical, politicized issues like climate change and
evolution.
Dispelling myths through science
You must have quite often heard people saying: “today is not
going to be a good day because a black cat just crossed my
path” or “today is Friday the 13 something bad is bound to
happen” or “someone is talking bad about me as my left eye
is constantly twitching since morning”. Such beliefs are
widely termed as superstitions.
They are generally irrational beliefs in supernatural
influences, especially leading to good or bad luck or a
practice-based on such a belief. There is a need to understand
the origin of such belief and its relevance in today’s world.
Somu Rao from Panaji, for many years, has been working to
provide scientific explanation to such beliefs by making
people aware of ‘Article 51 A (h)’- that states that it is the
fundamental duty of every citizen of the country to inculcate
scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform in everyday life. Rao says: “Superstition is any belief
or practise which is irrational; it may arise from ignorance,
misunderstanding of science, blindly believing in fate or
magic, or fear of that is unknown. Through our organisation
‘The Goa Science Forum’ we try to demystify myths related
to natural phenomena and explain superstations giving
scientific explanation. We also address myths related to
health problems to help people get rid of fear of the
unknown and phobias. So, that they do not get exploited by
people claiming to possess supernatural powers (defying
laws of nature).”
Bibliography