Research Methodology

Introduction
 Research Meaning
• Common parlance refers to “search for knowledge”.
• Scientific and systematic search for relevant information on
specific topic.
Scientific : conforming with the principles or methods used in
science (a scientific approach)
Systematic: Carried on using step-by-step procedures.
• Advance Lerner Dictionary: Careful investigation or inquiry
specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.
• “systematic method consist of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
collecting data, analysis of data, and reaching certain conclusion either in the form
of solution towards concerned problem”

• “Research is organized, systematic, data base, critical, objective, scientific inquiry

or investigation into specific problem, undertaken with the purpose to finding
answer or solution to it. ”

Organized: Functioning within a formal structure, as in the coordination and

direction of activities
Systematic: Carried on using step-by-step procedures.
Data- base: A collection of data
Critical: Characterized by careful, exact evaluation and judgment.
Objective: undistorted (Without alterations) by emotion or personal bias; based on
observable phenomena
• Careful analysis of data gathered
• Data gathered First hand or second hand
• Data regarding qualitative or quantitative.
 Business Research
• Systematic and organized effort to investigate a
specific problem encountered in the work
setting.
Steps The Manager Follow
• Where the problem area exist in the organization.
• Identify clearly, that need to be study.
• Gathered information
• Analyze the data
• Determine factors
• Taking necessary corrective steps.
 Types of Research
Applied & Fundamental (Basic or Pure) Research
• A research done with the intention of applying the result of
findings to solve specific problems currently being experienced
in an organization.
• Research that carried out to increase understanding of
fundamental principles.. how this world operates, what makes
things happen, why social relations are a certain way, and why
society changes. Used to formulate and generalize the theory.
(concern to natural phenomena or relating to pure
mathematics ). Research about trends
Qualitative & Quantitative Research
• Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity.
• Qualitative research is based on the qualitative phenomena.
(Human Behavior).
 Manager and Research
• Not doing research but having knowledge about research.
• You will have to understand, predict and control events that
dysfunctional to organization.
• How these events can be controlled

• Manager is not a researcher.

• Needs Organizations are complex
• Help manager, would sense, spot and deal problem before get out
of hand.
• Process should help manager.
• Manager  Minor problems and Outsider Major problems.
• Business journals  Sifting (To examine and sort carefully)
• Important for application for scientific journals.
• He can implement such information which the
research suggest for business.
• Manager can handle with success their own
problems at considerable cost saving method.
1. Sharpness the manager to the myriad Variables.
2. Calculated risk
3. Vested interest inside and outside will not be
able to prevail.
 Manager and Consultant-- Researcher
• If more complex or time consuming problems.

How to Locate & select Researcher ?

• Internet
• Directory

• Require credentials
• Projects
• Experience
Manager-- Researcher Relationship
• Necessary to deal with consultants.
• Academicians
• Manager use academics information Scientific
information.

• Outside researcher
• Interaction will be effective
• Inform researcher about information (No record)
• Easily foresee the information that researcher require.
 Internal Consultants
Advantages
• Accepted by employees
• Less time to understand the structure.
• Easy to implement their recommendation.
• Less cost in term of time
Disadvantages
• Stereotyping way of looking
• Conceal, distort or misinterpret the information.
• Not perceived as experts
• Sometime make the findings less objective and less scientific.
 External Consultants
Advantages
• Wealth of experience
• Think both contingently and divergently
• More knowledge through periodic training program.
Disadvantages
• Cost of hiring external consultant is high.
• Cost in term of time
• Charge extra fees
Scientific Investigation

Chapter 2
 Hallmarks of scientific research
1. Purposiveness
• Manager start the research with definite aim or purpose.
• Research Commitment less turnover, less absenteeism, increased
performance.
2. Rigor
• Good theoretical base and strong methodology
• Connotes  carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree of exactitude.
• Manager ask from 10-12 employees  commitment unscientific
approach.
a. The conclusion would be incorrectly drawn 10-12 employees
not representative of whole.
b. Question should be biased or incorrect.
c. Lots of other things influence commitment researcher failed to
include them Lack of theoretical background.
3. Testability
• After random selection  study of the previous research  develop
hypothesis  statistical test  for purpose
• EXP: Hypothesis Participation is positive related to the
Commitment
• Appropriate statistical test
• To see weather data support your the educated conjecture
(inference).
4. Replicability
• Manager/Researcher Based on Previous study Concludes
Participation is positively related to commitment.
• We will place faith and credence in these findings if similar
findings emerge on data collected from other organization
employing same method.
• the result to test the hypothesis same when the same type of
research repeated  In similar circumstances.
• Gain confidence  in scientific nature
5. Precision and confidence
• We hardly ever have the luxury of being able to draw definite conclusion
on the basis of result.
• Unable to study the universe.
• Our findings are based on sample.
• Sample is not exact to the population.
• Measurement error and other problems  make bias or error in findings.
• We would like to design  Ensure  finding are close to reality.
Precision
• Closeness to reality on the basis of sample.
• No of production days lost during year = 35
• Your study = 30-40 favorable
• If your study = 20-50
• Confidence
• Probability that our estimation are correct
• We can confidently claim that 95% of time our result would be true.
• Significance level = p= .05 (Far from reality)
[Link]
• Conclusion drawn based on facts of the findings derived from actual
result.
• Not on subjective
• Damage can be sustain organization that implement non data base or
misleading conclusion.
[Link]
• Applicability of the research from one organization setting to other.
• If the researchers find that  participation and commitment link different
settings generalizibility enhance.
• Not many research findings can be generalized.
8. Parsimony
• Simplicity in explaining the phenomena o a problem that occur, generating
solution, Is always preferred to complex research framework.
• Two or three variable = change 45% more valuable
• Ten variables = change 48% beyond manager control
• Parsimony can be introduce with good understanding of the problem and
important factors that influence.
Building Blocks of science in Research

• Deduction
 Process, we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by
logical generalization of a known fact.
• Induction
 Process where we observe certain phenomena
and on the basis arrive at conclusion.
 Building Blocks of Science
Observation
Theory refinement
or Identification
implementation of Problem
Area

Data
Interpretation Theoretical
Framework

Data
Analysis Hypothesis

Data
Collection Research Concept
Design Construct
 Hypothetico Deductive Method
1. Observation
• Sense certain changes (new behavior, attitude, feeling)
• The observed phenomena have potentially important consequences
• How to observe?
• People- oriented manager is always aware of what is happening in and
around organization.
• Goals Effectiveness in processes Positive or negative reaction.
• Manager pick that problems through cues.
• Manager identify gap actual and required.
2. Preliminary information gathering
• Seeking information  what is observed in-depth information.
• Done by talking informally to workers or use other sources (what is
happening and why)
• To identify what transpire in situation.
• Increases the level of awareness Focus on problems and factors
structured and formal interviews
3. Theory Formulation
• Integrate all information in logical manner
• All factors can be conceptualized and tested.
• Theoretical Framework  variables theoretically woven
(stretches in the bias directions) justification
• Why they might influence problem.
[Link]
• Theoretical framework hypothesis generated.
• Hypothesis testing is called deduction
• Hypotheses not original formulated  generated through
induction.
• This is after data obtain  creative insight occur New
hypotheses generated.
• Hawthorne study
5. Scientific data collection
• Data regarding every variable in hypotheses
needed to test hypothesis.
6. Data Analysis
• Data gathered are statistically analyzed.
• To see hypotheses generated supported
7. Deduction
• Arriving at conclusion interpretation of
analysis.
 Other type of Research
• Case studies
• In-depth Contextual (relative)Analysis of similar situation in other
organization nature and definition of problem same
• Hypothesis can be developed in case studies.
• If the hypotheses cannot be validate in even single study it will not support
your alternate hypothesis.
• Not often undertaken in organization
• Action Research
• Sometime undertaken by consultants  initiate change process.
• Action research methodology most appropriate while effecting planned
changes.
• Researchers begin with problem gathered relevant data to provide tentative
problem solution.
• The solution then implemented with knowledge maybe unintended
consequences following such implementation.
• The effects then evaluated, defined and diagnosed  research continuous 
until the problem is fully solved.
 The Broad Problem Area, Preliminary
data gathering and Problem Definition

CHAPTER 4
 Broad Problem Area
• Entire situation where one sees the possible
need for research for problem solving.
1. Problem currently existing (Employee Turnover Increases)
2. Area that manager needs to be improved
(Inventory controlled is not effective, Training programs are not effective)

3. Conceptual or theoretical issues that need to

be tightened up for basic research.(For Basic Research)
4. Some research questions that a basic research
wants to answer empirically. (Test the relationship)
1. Problem Currently Existing
• Manager might receive that women not treated
fairly by the bosses.
• When manager is not able to pinpoint, what
exactly it is.
• This is the matter calls for further investigation.
2. Require Improvement
• If company already formulated policies on
discrimination.
• Complains are still continue.
• Means that policies are ambiguous.
• How they are framed, understood and enforced.
3. Conceptual issues that need to be tightened
• For basic research
• To define the concept in precise term.
4. Answer Empirically
• To check the impact of one variable on other
variable.
• Discrimination consequences for individual.
 Preliminary data gathering
1. Nature of data can be collected.
a. Background information of organization
b. Prevailing knowledge on the topic.
Data can be collected through
• Published records
• Websites
• Archives
• Company policies, Rules and procedures Company
records
• PRIMARY AND SECONDRY DATA
 a. Background information on the
organization
• When outside agency conduct research
• Important to acquainted(understand) with background.
I. Origin and history of an organization
II. Size (Employees and Assets)
III. Charter Ideology, Purpose
IV. Location (Geographical Boundaries)
V. Resources
VI. Interdependence and external environment
[Link] position.
[Link]
Information on structural factors and
management philosophy (For outside researcher)

• Structure factors
 Role and position and no of employees at each job
 Extent of specialization
 Communication channels
 Control system
 Coordination and span of control
 Reward system
 Workflow system
Prevailing Knowledge on the Topic
• Literature Helps manager to identify factors
related to problem.
• No variable ignored founded in past.
• Variable not founded During interview but
having impact.
 Literature Survey
• Documentation of a comprehensive review of
published and unpublished work from
secondary sources of data in the area of
specific interest.
• People spend several weeks going through
 a. Reasons for Literature Survey
• Ensure No important variable is ignored
• Found that critical variables  Not come from interviews
• With out considering them exercise in Futility (useless)
• Prevent Reinvent the wheel save time and effort
• Good Literature survey ensure that:
 Important variables should not left out
 Tells about important variables
 Problem statement can be made with precision and
clarity
 Data Sources
 Text Books
• Cover broad range of topics
• Cover topics more thoroughly
• Starting point to find more detailed sources
• Less up to date from Journals
• Google Books, 4Shared, Torrent, [Link] Others
• Reference: Author Name, Year, Book Name and Publisher
 Journals
• Up to date information
• Peer reviewed
• Review Articles Meta Analysis
• Research Articles One or few related studies
• Literature of research article compact overview on specific topic
• EBSCO, Sagepub, Jstor, SpringerLink, Emeraldinsight, Science Direct, Wiley, Taylor and Francis,
SSRN, Google Scholars etc
• References: Author Name, Year, Title, Journal name, Volume, Number, Page No
 Theses
• PhD thesis Exhaustive Review
• Contains Chapters
• Structure Research Paper
• University Websites
• Author Name, Year, Title, University Name
 Conference Proceedings
• Latest unpublished research
• Every manuscript presented in conference should not be published.
• [Link]
• Reference: Author Name, Year, Title, Proceeding (Conference name), Where held
and Organizer
 Unpublished Manuscripts
• Information not Officially released
• “In Press” Papers
• AMA website Forthcoming Articles
• Author Name, Year, Title, Unpublished Manuscript, Publisher Name.
 Reports
• Government Institution Research
 Newspapers
• Up to date source
• Not Used in Academic Research
• Reference: Newspaper name, Date, Title and
Page Number
 Internet
• Source Cradibility
b. Conducting the Literature survey
1. Identifying the relevant sources
 Bibliographic database
 Abstract database
 Full-text data base
2. Extracting the relevant information
 Accessing and pinpointing published work the area of interest.
 Sometimes include hundreds of listings
 pertinent and peripheral to the contemplate study.
 Title, Abstract, Introduction
 Table of contents in books
 Quality of Journals and Articles
 Journal peer reviewed
 Impact factors
 Relevant can be obtained
3. Writing up Literature review
Documentation of relevant studies the author and
the year of study is called literature survey.
Its logical presentation of relevant research in the
area of investigation.
Purpose: identify and highlight important variables
and document the significant findings.
Bring together all relevant information in a cogent
(rational) and logical manner. Instead of presenting
all the information in chronological manner.
APA, Chicago Manual of Styles, Turaban Manual of
Writers
 Problem Definition
• After interview and literature review
• In position narrow down the problem
• Problem does not mean something seriously wrong
immediately need to rectified.
• Problem indicate interest in an issue where find the
right answer help to improve existing situation.
• Problem: situation where a gap exist between actual and
desire ideal state.
• Antecedents Problem Consequences
• Problem statement: clear, precise and succinct (to the point)
statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated.
Referencing in Literature Review Section
• Within Same paragraph ali (1988), not mentioned date
again.
• When authored by 2 individuals, Always cite both names.
Ali and hasan (1988).
• > 2 and <6 :First time write all authors names, After all
surname of First Author and Place “et al”. Ali et al., (1988).
• >5: only write surname and after all place et al with
surname.
• No author: Title “two or three words” 1988.
• Anonymous
 Theoretical Framework
Hypothesis Development
CHAPTER 5
 The need for theoretical framework
• Conceptual model of how one theorizes or make
logical sense of the relationship among the several
factors that have been identified as important to the
problem.
• It discuses the interrelationship among the several
factors that are deemed (believed) to be integral to
the dynamics of the situation being investigated.
• Help us to postulate or hypothesized and tested
certain relationship.
• Help us to improve our understanding about
problem.
 Variables
• A variable is anything that can take on
differing or varying values.
• Vales can differ at various time for the same
object or person.
OR
• At the same time for different objects of
persons.
• Production units, Absenteeism, Motivation
 Types of variables
1. Dependent (Criterion) variable
2. Independent( Predictor) variable
3. Moderating variable
4. Intervening variable
5. Discrete variable (Gender)
6. Continuous variable(Age)
7. Extraneous variable
 Dependent Variable
• Primary interest to researcher
• Researcher goal is to understand and describe
it.
• Through the analysis of dependent variable,
possible to find the answer.
• EXP: sales, debt to equity, organizational
loyalty
 Independent variable
• Is one that influence the dependent variable
• In either positive and negative way
• Increase in independent variable, there is an
increase or decrease in dependent variable

New product Stock Market

success Price
 Moderating Variable
• Is a variable that has a strong contingent effect
on the independent variable- dependent
variable relationship.
• Modify the original relationship
Availability of
Rejects
reference manuals

Interest and
inclination
 Intervening (Mediating) Variable
• That surface between the time the
independent variable start operating to
influence the dependent variable and the time
their impact is felt on it.
• it translate the independent variable into
dependent variable

Service
Satisfaction Loyalty
Quality
 Theoretical Framework
• After examining different variables and
how relationship among these establish.
• Theoretical framework is the foundation on
which entire research project is based.
• DEF: Its logically developed, describe and
elaborated network of association among
different variables deemed relevant to the
problem.
Components of Theoretical Framework
• Theoretical frame work and model
• Some describe model as simulation
• Some called it the representation of relationship between
and among concepts.
1. variable should be clearly defined and labeled.
2. How two or more variables are related to one another.
(make relationship according to theory)
3. Direction of the relationship on the basis of previous
findings.
4. Clear explanation about their relationship
5. Schematic diagram
 Hypothesis Development
• We have identified variables provide logical
reasoning in theoretical framework
• Test the relationship True or not
• Through statistical analysis we check it
• Formulating testable statement is called
hypothesis development.
• Definition: logical conjectured (guessed)
relationship between two variables expressed in
the form of testable form.
1. If-then statement
• Test whether difference(dis- similarities)
between two groups.
EXP: if employees are more healthy then they will
take sick leave less frequently.
2. Directional or non-directional hypothesis
• Stating relationship between two variables
• Compare two groups in term of negative,
positive, more than, less than are used
directional hypothesis.
• No sign of relationship non directional
• Relationship between age and job satisfaction.
• Non Directional
• That do postulate a relationship but no
indication of direction.
• Difference between two groups but not able
to say which group will be more and which will
be less on that variable.
• If the findings in previous studies are
conflicting.
• H: there is the relationship between age and
job satisfaction.
3. Null and Alternate Hypothesis
• Null Hypothesis: Proposition that state a definitive, exact
relationship between two variables.
• Population correlation between two variables are zero.
• There is no relationship
• no difference between population and sample we do
no true state of affairs between population.
• Null hypothesis is formulated for possible rejection
• If we reject the null hypothesis, all other possible
alternatives are accepted.
• Group difference
• H0 : μm = μw  H0 : μm - μw = 0
• HA : μm > μw or μm < μw
 Steps in hypothesis testing
1. State null and alternate hypothesis
2. Choose appropriate statistical test
3. Level of significance
4. See, the significance level is met
5. If the resultant value is larger than critical
value, Null hypothesis rejected otherwise
accepted.
Elements of Research Design

Chapter 6
 The Research Design
• Purpose of study (Exploratory, Descriptive and
Hypothesis Testing)
• Location (Contrived or Non Contrived)
• Type (Casual or correlation)
• Manipulated and control by researcher
(researcher interference)
• Temporal aspects (cross sectional or
longitudinal)
 Purpose of the study
[Link] Study
• When not much is known about the situation
• No information is available
• Extensive preliminary work needed
• Some qualitative study needed (observation, interviews)
• When data reveal (expose) some pattern regarding interest,
theories developed and hypothesis developed.
• Henry Mintzberg interviewed nature of managerial
work tested in different settings from both questionnaires
and interviews.
• Important when some facts are known and more information
needed to develop viable theoretical framework.
2. Descriptive Study
• In order to ascertain (establish) and be able to
describe the characteristics of the variable of
interest.
• Class room
• Characteristics of groups
3. Hypothesis Testing
• Explain the nature of certain relationship
• Establish the difference between groups.
 Types of Investigation
1. Casual Study
• Researcher wants to delineate(explain) the
cause of one or more problems are called
casual study.
2. Co relational Study
• When the researcher is delineating the
important variables associated with problem.
Researcher Interference with study
1. Minimal Interference
• Researcher no interference with normal activities.
• Having less interference only for data collection.
• Correlation study
2. Moderate Interference
• When researcher collect data from more than one point of time.
• Cause and effect study
• Manipulation and data collection
• Light and performance study
3. Excessive Interference
• Artificial Environment to control extraneous variable
• manupulation
 Study Setting
1. Contrived
• Artificial Setting
2. Non Contrived
• Natural Environment

Field Study: Correlation Study in natural environment

Field Experiment: Cause and Effect study in Natural
Environment
Lab Experiment: Cause and Effect study in Artificial
Environment
 Unit of Analysis
1. Individual as the unit of analysis
• Data will be collected from individual
2. Dyads as the unit of analysis
• Data should be collected from pairs
3. Groups as the unit of analysis
• Team performance
4. Divisions as the unit of analysis
• P&G Divisions
5. Industry as the unit of analysis
• Workforce employed or industry attractive
6. Country as the unit of analysis
 Time Horizon
• Cross Sectional
• researchers observe at one point in time.
• Cross-sectional research is usually the simplest and least costly
alternative.
• Longitudinal
• examine features of people or other units at more than one time.
• It is usually more complex and costly
• is also more powerful, especially when researchers seek answers
to questions about change.
 Time series research
 The panel study
 A cohort analysis