Suspension systems and
components
2 of 42
Objectives
• To provide good ride and handling performance –
– vertical compliance providing chassis isolation
– ensuring that the wheels follow the road profile
– very little tire load fluctuation
• To ensure that steering control is maintained during maneuvering –
– wheels to be maintained in the proper position wrt road surface
• To ensure that the vehicle responds favorably to control forces produced by the
tires during
– longitudinal braking
– accelerating forces,
– lateral cornering forces and
– braking and accelerating torques
– this requires the suspension geometry to be designed to resist squat, dive and roll of the
vehicle body
• To provide isolation from high frequency vibration from tire excitation
– requires appropriate isolation in the suspension joints
– Prevent transmission of ‘road noise’ to the vehicle body
3 of 42
Vehicle Axis system
• Un-sprung mass
• Right-hand orthogonal
axis system fixed in a vehicle
• x-axis substantially
horizontal,
is points forward, and
is in the longitudinal plane of
symmetry.
• y-axis points to driver's
right and
• z-axis points downward.
• Rotations:
– A yaw rotation about z-axis. SAE vehicle axes
– A pitch rotation about y-axis.
– A roll rotation about x-axis
Figure from Gillespie,1992
4 of 42
Tire Terminology - basic
• Camber angle
– angle between the wheel
plane and the vertical
– taken to be positive when the
wheel leans outwards from
the vehicle
• Swivel pin
(kingpin) inclination
– angle between the swivel pin
axis and the vertical
• Swivel pin (kingpin) offset
– distance between the centre
of the tire contact patch and
– intersection of the swivel pin
axis and the ground plane
Figure from Smith,2002
5 of 42
Tire Terminology - basic
• Castor angle
– inclination of the swivel pin axis
projected into the fore–aft
plane through the wheel centre
– positive in the direction shown.
– provides a self-aligning torque
for non-driven wheels.
• Toe-in and Toe-out
– difference between the front
and rear distances separating
the centre plane of a pair of
wheels,
– quoted at static ride height –
toe-in is when the wheel centre
planes converge towards the
front of the vehicle
Figure from Smith,2002
6 of 42
The mobility of suspension
mechanisms
Figure from Smith,2002
7 of 42
Analysis of Suspension Mechanisms
• 3D mechanisms
• Compliant bushes create variable link lengths
• 2D approximations used for analysis
• Requirement
– Guide the wheel along a vertical path
– Without change in camber
• Suspension mechanism has various SDOF
mechanisms
8 of 42
The mobility of suspension
mechanisms
• Guide motion of each
wheel along (unique)
vertical path relative to
the vehicle body without
significant change in
camber.
• Mobility (DOF) analysis is
useful for checking for the
appropriate number of Two-dimensional kinematics of common
degrees of freedom, suspension mechanisms
• Does not help in synthesis
to provide the desired M = 3(n – 1) – jh – 2jl
motion
Figure from Smith,2002
9 of 42
Suspension Types -Dependent
• Motion of a wheel on one side of the vehicle
is dependent on the motion of its partner on
the other side
• Rarely used in modern passenger cars
– Can not give good ride
– Can control high braking and accelerating
not
torques
• Used in
commerci
10 of 42
Hotchkiss Drive
• Axle is mounted on
longitudinal leaf springs,
which are compliant
vertically and stiff
horizontally
• The springs are
connected
pin- to the chassis
at one end and to a
pivoted link at the other.
• This enables the change
of length of the spring to
be accommodated due to Hotchkiss Drive
loading
Figure from Smith,2002
11 of 42
Semi-dependent Suspension
• the rigid connection between
pairs of wheels is replaced by
a compliant link.
• a beam which can bend and
flex providing both positional
control of the wheels as well
as compliance.
• tend to be simple in
construction but lack scope for
design flexibility
• Additional compliance can be
provided by rubber or hydro-
elastic springs.
• Wheel camber is, in this case, Trailing twist axle suspension
the same as body roll
12 of 42
Suspension Types - Independent
• motion of wheel pairs is
independent, so that a
disturbance at one
wheel is not directly Macpherson Strut Double wishbone
transmitted to its
partner
• Better ride and handling
Trailing arm Swing axle
Semi trailing arm Multi-link
13 of 42
Kinematic Analysis -Graphical
Graphical Analysis
• Objective
– The suspension ratio R
(the rate of change of
vertical movement at D
as a function of spring
compression)
– The bump to scrub rate
for the given position of
the mechanism.
Figure from Smith,2002
14 of 42
Kinematic Analysis -Graphical
• Draw
mechanism
suspension to
scale,
chassis is fixed
assume
VB = ωBArBA
• Construct the
velocity diagram
Figure from Smith,2002
15 of 42
Kinematic Analysis – Sample
calculation
• Double wish bone
• The objectives are
– Determine camber angle Simplified
α, and suspension ratio suspension
R (as defined in the model
previous example)
– For suspension
movement described by
“q” varying from 80° to
100°
– Given that in the static
laden position “q” = 90°.
Figure from Smith,2002, Google search
16 of 42
Kinematic Analysis – Sample
calculation
• Positions are provided
• Two non-linear equations solved for positions described
interval 1
17 of 42
Kinematic Analysis
18 of 42
Kinematic Analysis
The second part of the solution begins by expressing the length of the
suspension spring in terms of the primary variable and then proceeds
to determine the velocity coefficients
19 of 42
Kinematic Analysis - Results
Figure from Smith,2002
20 of 42
Roll centre analysis
Two Definitions
• SAE : point in
transverse
a the plane
any pair of wheels
throughat which
a transverse force may be
applied to the sprung mass
without causing it to roll
• Kinematics : the roll centre
is the point about which the
body can roll without any
lateral movement at either
of the wheel contact areas
Figure from Smith,2002
21 of 42
Limitations of Roll Centre Analysis
• As roll of the sprung mass takes place, the
suspension geometry changes, symmetry of
the suspension across the vehicle is lost and
the definition of roll centre becomes invalid.
– It relates to the non-rolled vehicle condition and
can therefore only be used for approximations
involving small angles of roll
– Assumes no change in vehicle track as a result of
small angles of roll.
22 of 42
Roll-centre determination
• Aronhold–Kennedy theorem of
three centers : when three bodies
move relative to one another
they have three instantaneous
centers all of which lie on the
same straight line
• can be varied by angling the
Iupper
wb and lower wishbones to
different positions, thereby
altering the load transfer
between inner and outer wheels
in a cornering maneuver.
• This gives the suspension
designer some control over
the handling capabilities of a For a double wishbone
vehicle
Figure from Smith,2002
23 of 42
Roll-centre determination
• In the case of the
MacPherson strut
suspension the upper
line defining Iwb is
perpendicular to the
strut axis. Macpherson strut
• Swing axle roll center is
located above the
“virtual” joint of the
axle.
Swing Axle
Figure from Smith,2002
24 of 42
Roll-centre determination
Roll centre location for a Hotchkiss suspension
Roll centre for a four link rigid axle Roll centre location for semi-trailing arm
suspension suspension
Figure from Smith,2002
25 of 42
Force Analysis - spring and wheel rates
• Relationship between
W and S are the wheel and
spring deflections and spring forces respectively
v and u are the corresponding
wheel displacements in deflections
suspensions is non-
linear
• Desired wheel-
(related to rate
suspension
natural frequency) has
to be interpreted into a
spring-rate Notation for analyzing spring and
wheel rates in a double wishbone
suspension
26 of 42
Spring and wheel rates
From principle of virtual work
Wheel rate
27 of 42
Spring and wheel rates
Combined Equation is
Similarly can be derived for other suspension
geometries
28 of 42
Wheel-rate for constant natural
frequency with variable payload
Simplest representation of undamped vibration
kw – wheel rate
ms – proportion of un-sprung mass
Change in wheel rate required for change in payload.
Static displacement
To maintain wn constant, the static deflection needs to be
constant. Combining both equations
29 of 42
Wheel-rate for constant natural
frequency with variable payload
Integrating the equation and substituting with initial
conditions provides the following expression
Substituting back , we obtain
30 of 42
Wheel-rate for constant natural
frequency with variable payload
Wheel load v. wheel deflection Wheel rate v. wheel deflection
Typical wheel load and wheel rate as functions of wheel displacement
R and dR/dv are known from geometric analysis
gives ks if kw is known from the above graphs
ks can be obtained as a function of v and u so as to get constant frequency
Figure from Smith,2002
31 of 42
Forces in suspension members - Basics
• Mass of the members is
negligible compared to that
of the applied loading.
• Friction and compliance at
the joints assumed
negligible and the spring or
wheel rate needs to be
known
• Familiar with the use of
free-body diagrams for
determining internal forces
in structures Equilibrium of two and three force
• Conditions for equilibrium members, (a) Requirements for equilibrium
of a two force member (b) Requirements
for equilibrium of a three-force member
Figure from Smith,2002
32 of 42
Vertical loading
Force analysis of a double wishbone suspension (a) Diagram showing applied forces (b)
FBD of wheel and triangle of forces (c) FBD of link CD and triangle of forces
Figure from Smith,2002
33 of 42
Vertical loading
• Assume FW is the wheel load and FS the force
exerted by the spring on the suspension
mechanism
• AB and CD are respectively two-force and
three force members
• FB and FC can be determined from concurrent
forces
• Similar analysis possible for other types also.
34 of 42
Vertical loading- Macpherson
Force analysis of a MacPherson strut, (a) Wheel loading, (b) Forces acting
on the strut
Figure from Smith,2002
35 of 42
Other Loadings
• Lateral Loadings due to cornering effects
• Longitudinal loadings arise from
– braking,
– drag forces on the vehicle and
– shock loading due to the wheels striking bumps
and pot-holes.
• Same method as before used to analyze these
loading conditions
36 of 42
Forces in suspension members –
Dynamic factors for Shock loading
37 of 42
Anti Squat / Anti-dive
• During braking there is
a tendency for the
sprung mass to “dive”
(nose down) and
• During acceleration the
reverse occurs, with the
nose lifting and the rear
end “squatting”
Free body diagram of a vehicle during braking
Figure from Smith,2002
38 of 42
Anti-squat / Anti-dive
• During braking there is
a tendency for the
sprung mass to “dive”
(nose down) and
• During acceleration the
reverse occurs, with the
nose lifting and the rear
end “squatting”
Free body diagram of a vehicle during braking
Figure from Smith,2002
39 of 42
Wheel loads during braking
• Assume fixed braking
ratio
– k=Bf/(Bf+Br)
• Add D’Alembert force (-
ma)
• Moment about the rear
tyre gives
– NfL-mah-mgc=0
– Nf=mah/L+mgc/L
– Nr=mgb/L-mah/L
Effective load increases in the front
and decreases at the rear wheel
40 of 42
• Consider side view and
wheel pivoting at Of
• Sf – suspension force
• Sf = Sf + Sf (static +
change)
• Moments about Of give
Condition for no dive
– Nfe-Sfe-Bff=0 %age of anti dive given by
mahe tan
L B f
f
( ) *100
0
(B f tan
mak
f )h
tan '
41 of 42
Anti-squat / Anti-dive
• For rear suspension
f h
e L(1 k) tan
• If these conditions are met – zero deflection in front / rear
tires
• If the pivots lie below the locus less than 100% anti-dive
will be obtained.
• In practice anti-dive does not exceed 50% :
– Subjectively zero pitch braking is undesirable
– There needs to be a compromise between full anti-dive and
anti-squat conditions
– Full anti-dive can cause large castor angle changes (because
all
the braking torque is reacted through the suspension links)
– resulting in heavy steering during braking.
42 of 42
Anti-squat/ Anti-dive
Figure from Smith,2002