Geometric Design of Highways

Highway Alignment
 Once the necessity of the highway is assessed, the next process is deciding
the alignment.
 The highway alignment can be either horizontal or vertical and they are
described in detail in the following sections.
 Alignment
 The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the
ground is called the alignment.
 Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths.
 Vertical alignment includes level and gradients.
 Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will enhance
the construction, maintenance and vehicle operating cost.
 Once an alignment is fixed and constructed, it is not easy to change it due to
increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structures by the
roadside.
 Importance of Geometric Design
 The geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions and
layout of visible features of the highway such as alignment, sight
distance and intersection.
Optimum efficiency- Maximum safety- Reasonable cost

 The geometrics of highway should be designed to provide

optimum efficiency in traffic operations with maximum safety at
reasonable cost.

 The designer may be exposed to either planning of new highway

network or improvement of existing highways to meet the
requirements of the existing and anticipated traffic.
12500

PCU/
day

2500 Yea 2035

2015
Elements of Geometric Design of Highways
Width of pavement
 Cross section elements Formation and land
Surface characteristics
Cross slope of
pavement
SD available in horizontal curve
 Sight distance consideration SD available in Vertical curve
SD available at intersections
 Horizontal alignment details Super-elevation
Transition curves

 Vertical alignment details

 Intersection elements
 Design Factors
 The geometric design of highways depends on
several design factors which control the geometric elements are:

Design Speed

Topography

Traffic Factors

Design hourly volume and capacity

Environmental and other factors

 Design Speed
 Should be consistent with drivers' expectations
 Should fit the traffic habits of nearly all drivers
 Should not change over a substantial length of
highway
 Depends on the functional class
 Ranges from 30 km/h to 120 km/h with 10 km/h
increment
 Operating speed – 85th free-flow speed percentile

 Running speed – average speed when traffic is “reasonably”

continuous
 Design speed – speed used to determine geometric design
features
of roadways
Topography

Design Speed

Plain Terrain 100

Kmph

80 Kmph Rolling Terrain

Mountainous Terrain 50 Kmph

Traffic

Factors
Different vehicles
have different
characteristics like
height, weight,
braking nature
etc.
Basic Terms

 Design Hourly Volume (DHV)

 Expected number of vehicles in one hour in both
directions
 Directional Design Hourly Volume (DDHV)
 Expected number of vehicles in one hour in one
direction
 Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
 Number of vehicles in 24 hours in both directions

 Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

 Number of vehicles in 24 hours in both directions
Contour Line
 Requirements of Alignment
 The requirements of an ideal alignment are:
 The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as
possible be straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations
may be needed.
 The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should
be easy for the operation of vehicles.
 So to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should be provided.
 It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of
view especially at slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should have safe
geometric features.
 The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only
when the initial cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost is minimum.
Principles of Highway Alignment

 The alignment of a highway is a three

dimensional problem with measurement in x, y
and z direction.
 It is a bit complicated, therefore the alignment
problem is typically reduced to two dimensional
alignment as shown in figure on next slide.
 Alignment is a 3D problem broken down into two 2D
problems
 Horizontal Alignment (plan view)
 Vertical Alignment (profile view)
 Stationing
 Along horizontal alignment
 12+00 = 1,200 ft. for 100 ft
 1+287 = 1287 m. for 1000 m
 Starting from ( 0+00 and 0+000)
STATIONIN
G
U.S. units

1+00.00 2+00.00 3+00.00 4+00.00

3+43.58 or 343.58 ft
100 ft
Metric units

1+000.000 2+000.000 3+000.000

4+000.000

1 km
2+458.218 or 2,458.218 m
 Plan View(Horizontal Alignment

24+
23+00

00
22+00
21+00
20+00
19+00
18+00
17+0
16

0
+
00
15
+0
0
Profile View( Vertical Alignment)

700
700
600
500
400
300
200

17+00 18+00 19+00 20+00 21+00 22+00 23+00 24+00

15+00 16+00
 Vertical Alignment

Reduced
Speed

Increased
Speed
 Vertical Alignment
A number of factors influence the vertical alignment
of a
highway, including the following:
 Natural terrain
 Minimum stopping sight distance for the selected
design speed
 The number of trucks and other heavy vehicles in the traffic
stream
 The basic roadway cross-section; i.e., two lanes
versus multiple lanes
 Natural environmental factors, such as wetlands and historic,
cultural, and community resources
 Vertical curves are almost arranged such that half of the curve
length is positioned before the PVI and half after and are
referred as equal tangent vertical curves.
 A circular curve is used to connect the horizontal straight stretches
of road, a parabolic curve is usually used to connect gradients in the
 Vertical Alignment
 Grade
 Longitudinal slope of highway
 Connect roadway grades (tangents)
 Measure of inclination or slope, rise over the run
 10% grade increases 10’ vertically for every 100’
horizontal
 Cars: negotiate 4-5% grades without significant
speed reduction
 Trucks: significant speed changes
 5% increase on short descending grades
 7% decrease on short ascending grades
 Grade Considerations
 Maximum grade – depends on terrain type, road
functional class, and design speed

Rural Arterials
Terrain 60mph 70mph
Level 3% 3%
Rolling 4% 4%
Mountainous 6% 5%

Source: AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

Maximum Grades
 Passenger vehicles can easily negotiate 4 to 5%
grade without appreciable loss in speed
 Upgrades: trucks average speed decreases
7%
 Downgrades: trucks average speed increase
5%
Vertical Curves
 To provide transition between two grades
 Objective:
 Determine elevation to ensure
 Proper drainage
 Acceptable level of safety
 Primary challenge
 Transition between two grades
 Vertical curves
 Drainage (rainfall)
 Driver safety (SSD)
 Driver comfort
 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
 Parabolic function
 Constant rate of change of slope
 Implies equal curve tangents

y  ax  bx  c
2

 y is the roadway elevation at distance x from start of vertical

curve (PVC) in stations or ft (m)
 x is distance from beginning of the vertical curve in stations or ft
(m).
 a and b are coefficients defined later.
 c is elevation of PVC (because x = 0 corresponds to PVC) in ft
(m).
 Each roadway point is defined by stationing (which
is measured along a horizontal plan) and elevation.
Types of Vertical Curves

G1 G2

Crest Vertical Curve

Sag Vertical Curve

G1 G2
Vertical Curves
Crest Vertical Curves
PVI
A
PVC
G1 PVT
L/2
G2

L
x

y  ax  bx 
2
Choose Either:
c • G1, G2 in decimal form, L in feet
• G1, G2 in percent, L in stations
Vertical Curve Elements
 G1 = initial roadway grade in percent (ft/ft)

 G2 = final roadway grade in percent

 A = Absolute value of difference in grades (initial minus final, usually in

percent)

 PVC = point of the vertical curve (the initial point of the curve)

 PVI =point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final

grades)

 PVT = point of vertical tangent, which is the final point of the vertical
curve

 L = the length of the curve in stations or ft measured in a constant

elevation horizontal plane

 Y = offset for equal-tangent vertical curves

 Choose Either:
• G1, G2 in decimal form, L in feet
Relationships • G1, G2 in percent, L in stations

At the PVC : x  0 and Y 

c
At the PVC : x  dY
and dx  b  1
0
G
d Y
2
G  G 
Anywhere 2  2a  G 2
dx L
1
 a  G 2L
2 1
: PVI
G1 δ
PVC G2
PVT
L/2

L
x
Other Properties of Vertical Curves

 For vertical curve of equal tangent parabola

design and construction, offsets which are vertical
distances from initial tangent to the curve are
important for vertical curve design.
 A vertical curve also simplifies the computation of the
high and low points or crest and sag vertical curves
respectively, since high or low point does not occur at the
curve ends PVC or PVT.
 Let ‘Y’ is the offset at any distance ‘x’ from PVC.
 Ym is the mid curve offset & Yt is the offset at the end of
the vertical curve.
 From an equal tangent parabola, it can be written as;

A
y x 2
200L
 where ‘y’ is the offset in feet and ‘A’ is the
absolute
value of the difference in grades , A  G1  G2
in %), ‘L’ is length of vertical curve in feet and ‘x’
 Putting the value of x=L
A L 2
ym  ( )
200L 2

ym 
800
AL
A
yf  * L2
200 L

yf 
20
AL0
 •G1, G2 in percent
Other Properties •L in feet

G1 x

PVT
PVC

Y
Ym G2

PVI Yf
A  G1 
G2
A
Y x 2 Ym  Yf 
200L 80 20
AL0 AL0
Additional Properties
 Vertical curve gives the length of curve required to effect a 1%
change in slope.
 Parabolic equation used roadway elevations and it gives a
constant rate of change of slope, it can be shown that the
horizontal distance required to change the slope by 1% is

L
 K A
 K = the horizontal distance in feet required to affect a 1%
change in the slope of a vertical curve.
 L = Length of curve (ft)
 A = the absolute value of the difference in the grades (|
G1 - G2
|) (%)
 K-Value (defines vertical curvature)
 The number of horizontal feet needed for a 1% change in
slope

 Additional Properties of Vertical Curves
The stopping sight distance (SSD)
 Construction of a vertical curve is a costly operation
requiring the movement of significant amounts of
earthen material (cut & fill).
 The challenge of highway design is to minimize
construction costs, usually by making the vertical
curve as short as possible, while still providing
an adequate level of safety.
 The safety level is adequate if motorists have
sufficient sight distance to avoid collisions.
VERTICAL CURVE SIGHT DISTANCE
Sight Distances

 –Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

 –Decision Sight Distance (DSD)
 –Passing Sight Distance (PSD)
 –Intersection Sight Distance(ISD)
Sight Distance
Length of the roadway a driver can see at any
particular time .
 Stopping Sight Distance
 Stopping Sight distance
–A distance required by a driver to perceive/react and stop etc when
necessary
–For safety, design should provide sight distance of sufficient length so that
drivers can control the operation of their vehicles to avoid striking an
unexpected object in the traveled way
–Stopping sight distance is calculated as the sum of (1) the distance a vehicle
travels from the instant a driver sees an object necessitating a stop until the
instant the brakes are applied, and (2) the distance required to actually stop the
vehicle once the brakes are applied
–Specifically, SSD is affected by both horizontal and vertical curves in a
roadway’s alignment.
 Criteria for Sight Distance
 Driver eye height: for passenger vehicle’s = 3.5 ft above surface
 Height of object in roadway = 2 feet
 Height of opposing vehicle = 3.5 feet
Stopping Sight Distance
Composed of two distances
 –Distance traveled during perception/reaction time
 –Distance required to physically brake vehicle
 –SSD = PRD + BD (with final velocity uf = 0)

2
SSD  V 1

V1t r 2g( f 
G)
AASHTO SSD Chart
Decision Sight Distance (DSD)

 Decision sight distance (DSD) refers to the sight distance

needed for a driver to (1) detect an unexpected or difficult
‐to ‐perceive condition in a roadway environment, (2) recognize
the threat condition, (3) select an appropriate speed and path,
and (4) initiate and complete the movement safely and
efficiently
 Some common examples of DSD on the roadway include the
distance required to slow down for a turn, a merge, a lane drop,
or an exit
 It is important to consider DSD at locations where drivers may
require additional time or distance due to complex driving
situations. Because DSD is a greater distance than SSD,
advance warning signs of an upcoming maneuver or required
action may be warranted
AASHTO Design DSD Chart
 Passing Sight Distance

 Passing sight distance (PSD) is the length of roadway needed

to complete a normal passing maneuver
 PSD is the distance required to make a decision, react, pass,
and rejoin the traffic stream
 A calculation of PSD helps to determine if sufficient distance
is available to allow for a passing zone to be installed or to
determine if a current passing zone actually affords motorists
sufficient distance and time to complete a passing maneuver
 Certain 2-lane roads should have sufficient sight distance to
enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing
other vehicles without risk of crash
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
Elements of Passing Sight Distance for 2 Lane HW
Passing Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance Design Chart
Passing Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance
 Intersection Sight Distance (ISD)
 Intersection sight distance (ISD)
refers to the line of sight
between a driver on a roadway
and a vehicle attempting to
enter from a side street or
driveway
 This value is critical in
determining where driveways or
other access points should be
located, or what traffic control
devices are necessary, to ensure
that adequate ISD is provided
 ISD is easily measured in the
field, and information on this
procedure can be found in the
AASHTO Green Book
Intersection Sight Distance (ISD)
•In general, ISD refers to the corner sight distance available in
intersection quadrants that allows a driver approaching an intersection to
observe the actions of vehicles on the crossing leg(s).
•ISD evaluations involve establishing the needed sight triangle in each
quadrant by determining the legs of the triangle on the two crossing
roadways.
 Site obstructions may include:
 –buildings,
 –parked or turning vehicles,
 –trees,
 –hedges,
 –fences,
 –retaining walls, and
 –the actual ground line.
SSD at Crest Vertical Curves

 In providing the sufficient SSD on a vertical curve, the

length of curve ‘L’ is the critical concern.
 Longer lengths of curve provide more SSD, all
else being equal, but are most costly to construct.
 Shorter curve lengths are relatively inexpensive
to construct but may not provide adequate SSD.
 In developing such an expression, crest and
sag vertical curves are considered separately.
 For the crest vertical curve case, consider
the diagram.
 Minimum Length of the Curve
SSD

PVI
Line of Sight

PVC PVT G2
G1

h2
h1

L
For SSD < L For SSD > L

L
ASSD
L 200  h1  h2 
2


2
100 2h1  2h2 2SSD A

Crest Vertical Curves
 Assumptions for design
 h1 = driver’s eye height = 3.5 ft.
 h2 = tail light height = 2.0 ft.

 Simplified Equations

For SSD < L For SSD > L

ASSD L
L 2 2158
 A
215 2SSD
8
Crest Vertical Curves
 Assuming L > SSD…

ASSD
L 2
215
8
 Working with the above equations can be
cumbersome.
 To simplify matters on crest curves
computations, K- values, are used.

L = K*A

where k is the horizontal distance in feet,

required to affect 1 percent change in slope.
Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves

from AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves

ASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

Sag Vertical Curves
 Sight distance is governed by night- time
conditions
 Distance on curve illuminated by headlights
need to be considered
 Driver comfort

 Drainage

 General appearance
 Sag Vertical Curves
Light Beam Distance (SSD)

G1
headlight beam (diverging from LOS by β degrees) G2

PVC PVT

h1 PVI
h2=0

L
For SSD < L For SSD > L

L ASSD 200h1  SSDtan 

L
200 h1
2
S 
2SSD A
tan  
Sag Vertical Curves
 Assumptions for design
 h1 = headlight height = 2.0 ft.
 β = 1 degree

 Simplified Equations

For SSD < L For SSD > L

ASSD 2
 400  
L L  2 SSD  
400   3.5SSD 

3.5SSD A
Sag Vertical Curves
 Assuming L > SSD…

SSD 2
K
400 
3.5SSD
Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves

from AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves
Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls (Sag)

 For driver comfort use:

L > AV2
46.5

 To consider general appearance use: L >

100 A
Sag Vertical Curve:
Example
A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a –3% to a
+3% grade. Design speed is 40 mph. What is L?
SSD = 313.67 feet S>L
Determine whether S<L or S>L

L = 2(313.67 ft) – (400 + 2.5 x 313.67) =

[3 – (-3)]

313.67 < 377.70, so condition does not apply

Sag Vertical Curve:
Example
A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a –
3% to a +3% grade. Design
speed is 40 mph. What is L?

SSD = 313.67 feet

L= 6 x (313.67)2 = 394.12
ft

400 + 3.5 x 313.67

313.67 < 394.12, so condition applies

Sag Vertical Curve:
Example
A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a –3%
to a +3% grade. Design speed is 40 mph. What is
L?
SSD = 313.67 feet
Testing for comfort:
L = AV2 = (6 x [40 mph]2) = 206.5 feet
46.5 46.5
Testing for appearance:
L = 100A = (100 x 6) = 600 feet
 Underpass Distance on Sag Vertical
Curve

Clearance height of overpass

Structure above roadway in ft.

Source: green book, 281

 Underpass distance on Sag Vertical cu

For L > S: AS 2
Lm 
H1  H
800(Hc  2
2 )

800(H c  H1  H 2 )
For L < S: Lm  2S 2
 A

Take H1 = 8 ft. for truck driver, H2 = 2 ft. for the taillight of a vehicle
Underpass distance on Sag Vertical

For L > S: ASSD2

Lm 
800(H c 
5)

For L < S: 
800(H c
L  2SSD 
m
A 5)
Example: A crest vertical curve joins a +3% and

–4% grade. Design speed is 75 mph. Length =

2184.0 ft. Station at VPI is 345+ 60.00,

elevation at VPI = 250 feet. Find elevations and

station for VPC and VPT.

Solution:
L/2 = 1092.0 ft
Station at VPC = [345 + 60.00] - [10 + 92.00] = 334 +
68.00
Vertical Diff VPI to VPC: -0.03 x (2184/2) = - 32.76 feet
ElevationVPC = 250 – 32.76 = 217.24 feet
Station at VPT = [345 + 60.00] + [10 + 92.00] = 357 +
52.00
Vertical Diff VPI to VPT = -0.04 x (2184/2) = - 43.68
feet
Elevation VPT = 250 – 43.68 = 206.32 feet
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT: Gen. considerations

Vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre line

of the road consisting of grades and vertical curves.
General controls for the vertical alignment are :-
[Link] line should be smooth with gradual
changes. Numerous and short length of
grades be avoided.
2. Roller coaster or hidden dip type profile should be
avoided.
3. Avoid broken back grade line.
[Link] long continuous grades, place steepest at bottom
and flatten the grade at top.
5. Avoid intersection at grade, if unavoidable flatten as
much as possible.
6. Undulating grade lines involving substantial lengths of
momentum grades should be appraised for their
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT : Gen. considerations

7. In the establishment of grade, an ideal situation is one

in which the cut is balanced by the fill without involving
excessive borrow or removal of cut material.
8. Ideal grades have long distances betweenthe
intersection with long curves betweenthe grade
points,
tangents to provide smooth riding qualities and
visibility. good
[Link] grade should follow the general terrain and rise or fall
in the direction of the existing drainage.
10. In rock cuts and in flat, low lying, or swampy areas, it is
necessary to maintain higher grades with respect to the
existing ground line.
11. Future possible construction and the presence of grade
separations or bridge structures can also act as
control
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT : Gen. considerations

12. In case of dual carriage way it is preferred to have two

separate vertical and horizontal alignments.
[Link] vertical curves should be avoided in cuts unless
adequate drainage can be provided.