Domain coloring
is a technique for visualizing complex
functions by assigning a color to each point of the complex
plane.
Complex Numbers
1 Introduction to Complex Numbers
The development of number systems
1 Introduction to Complex Numbers
The realm of numbers gradually extends from
natural numbers, integers, rational numbers
to real numbers.
From the point of mathematical
manipulations, number systems are extended
so as to make inverse operations possible.
For example, to make the inverse of addition,
i.e. subtraction, of natural numbers possible,
we introduce the negative numbers; the
inverse of squaring, i.e. taking the square
root, of positive numbers, we include the
irrational numbers.
1 Introduction to Complex Numbers
The equation
x2 = –1
has no real roots. We have to create the number i 1 so that the
equation has roots
x = ±i
The letter i, being the first letter of word ‘imaginary’, is called the unit
imaginary number. We define that
i 2 1
The complete set of complex numbers is denoted by ℂ.
1 Introduction to Complex Numbers
If a and b are real numbers, then the number in the form a + bi is called a
complex number. It is called the standard form or rectangular form of
the complex number.
A complex number is usually denoted by the letter z. For instance, z = a +
bi. The number a is called the real part of the complex number and b is
called the imaginary part of the complex number.
1 Introduction to Complex Numbers
When b = 0, z = a + bi = a + 0i = a. Hence, any real number a can be
considered as the complex number a + 0i.
When a = 0, z = a + bi = 0 + bi = bi. The number bi is called the pure
imaginary number.
Two complex numbers are said to be equal if and only if both the real
parts and imaginary parts of them are equal.
a bi c di if and only if a c and b d .
However, unlike real numbers, complex numbers have no ordering. For
instance, we cannot say which of the complex numbers 3 – 4i and –2 + 5i
are greater.
1 Introduction to Complex Numbers
From the definition of complex numbers,
i 2 ( 1) 2 1, i 3 i 2i 1i i, i 4 (i 2 ) 2 (1) 2 1, i 5 i 4i 1i i,
i 6 i 5i i 2 1, i 7 i 4i 3 1(i ) i, i 8 (i 4 ) 2 12 1, i 9 i 8i 1i i,
......
It can be easily derived that
i 4 n 1, i 4 n1 i, i 4 n 2 1, i 4 n3 i
1 Introduction to Complex Numbers
Example 1
k k 1 k 2 k 3
Simplify i i i i , where k is a natural number.
Solution:
i k i k 1 i k 2 i k 3
i k k 1 k 2 k 3 a m a n a m n
i 4k 6
i 4( k 1) 2
1 i 4 n 2 1
1 Introduction to Complex Numbers
Example 2
Solve the equation x(2x – 3) = x – 7.
Solution:
x(2 x 3) x 7
2 x 2 3x x 7
2x2 4x 7 0
(4) (4) 2 4(2)(7)
x
2( 2)
4 40
4
4 40i
1 i
4
2 10i
2
2 Operations of Complex Numbers
The addition, subtraction and multiplication of complex numbers can be
done in the same way as the manipulation of polynomials of real numbers.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Since ( c di )( c di ) c d i c d ( 1) c d is a real number,
this result is useful in division of complex numbers.
If z1 a bi and z2 c di, where z 2 0, then
z1 a bi
z2 c di
a bi c di
c di c di
(a bi)(c di)
(c di)(c di)
(ac bd ) (bc ad )i ac bd bc ad
2 2
2 2
2 2
i
c d c d c d
2 Operations of Complex Numbers
Example 3
Express the result of each of the following in the form a + bi:
(a)(1 + 5i) – (3 – 4i) – (–7 + 2i)
(b)(–3 – 4i)(2 + 3i)
(c) 1 2i
3 4i
Solution:
(a) (1 + 5i) – (3 – 4i) – (–7 + 2i)
= 1 + 5i – 3 + 4i + 7 – 2i
= (1 – 3 + 7) + (5 + 4 – 2)i
= 5 + 7i
(b) (–3 – 4i)(2 + 3i)
= –6 – 8i – 9i – 12i2
= [–6 – 12(–1)] + (–8 – 9)i i2 = -1
= 6 – 17i
2 Operations of Complex Numbers
Example 3 (cont’d)
Express the result of each of the following in the form a + bi:
(a)(1 + 5i) – (3 – 4i) – (–7 + 2i)
(b)(–3 – 4i)(2 + 3i)
(c) 1 2i
3 4i
Solution:
(c) 1 2i 3 6i 4i 8
3 4i 9 16
1 2i 3 4i 5 10i
3 4i 3 4i 25
(1 2i )(3 4i ) 1 2
i
(3 4i )(3 4i ) 5 5
3 6i 4i 8i 2
9 16i 2
2 Operations of Complex Numbers
Example 4
If (x + xi) + (y – yi) – (–3 + i) = 0, where x and y are real numbers, find the
values of x and y.
Solution:
( x xi) ( y yi ) (3 i ) 0
( x y 3) ( x y 1)i 0 0i 0 = 0 + 0i
Equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides,
x y 3 0 ......(1)
x y 1 0 ......(2)
Solving (1) and (2),
x 1
y 2
2 Operations of Complex Numbers
Example 5
Find the square roots of 3 + 4i. Analysis:
Solution: We have to find a complex number a
Let 3 4i (a bi ) 2 + bi such that a bi 3 4.i
Squaring both sides,
3 4i a 2 2abi b 2i 2
(a bi) 2 3 4i
(a 2 b 2 ) 2abi
a 2 b 2 3 ......(1) We can then equate the real part and
imaginary part on both sides to find
2ab 4 ......(2) the values of a and b.
2
From (2), a ......(3)
b 2
Put (3) into (1), 2 2
b 3
b
4 b 4 3b 2
b 4 3b 2 4 0
2 Operations of Complex Numbers
Example 5 (cont’d)
Find the square roots of 3 + 4i.
Solution:
(b 2 3)(b 2 1) 0
b2 1 or b 2 3 (rejected) b is a real number.
b 1
2
When b 1, a 2
1
2
When b 1, a 2
1
The square roots are 2 i and 2 i.
3 Argand Diagram
From the definition of complex number
z = a + bi, z is uniquely determined by
the real numbers a and b.
Thus, the complex number z has a one-
to-one-correspondence with the ordered
pair (a, b). But an ordered pair (a, b) of
real numbers can be represented by a
point in a coordinate plane.
Hence, a point Z(a, b)in the coordinate
plane may be used to represent the
complex number z = a + bi.
This coordinate plane is called the
complex number plane or the Argand
plane. A diagram based on the Argand
plane is referred to as an Argand
diagram.
3 Argand Diagram
In an Argand diagram, real numbers are
represented by points on the horizontal
axis which is called the real axis. Pure
imaginary numbers are represented by
points on the vertical axis which is
called the imaginary axis.
The origin, O, being the point (0, 0),
represents the number zero.
3 Argand Diagram
Example 6
Represent the complex numbers z1 = 2 + 3i, z2 = –6 – 3i, z3 = 2 and z4 = –2 in
the same Argand diagram.
Solution:
3 Argand Diagram
Example 7
Let z1 = 3 + 5i and z2 = 4 – 3i, represent z1, z2 and z1 + z2 in the same Argand
diagram.
Solution:
z1 z2 (3 5i ) (4 3i ) 7 2i
4 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
In the figure, the point Z represents the
complex number z = a + bi. Let OZ = r and the
angle that OZ makes with the positive direction
of the real axis be θ.
Then
a r cos ,
b r sin
b
r a b , tan
2 2
a
4 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
a r cos , b r sin
b
r a 2 b 2 , tan
a
The length r is called the modulus of z,
and is denoted by |z |.
The angle θ is called the argument or
amplitude of z, and is denoted by arg z
or amp z.
By definition, r ≧ 0 for any z and there
is a value of θ in the range –π < θ ≦ π.
This is known as the principal value
(argument) of arg z.
4 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Example 8
Find the modulus and argument of each of the following complex numbers :
(a) 3 (b) 4i (c) 4 4i (d) 3 3 3i
Solution:
(b) 4i 0 4i
(a) 3 3 0i
2 2 4i 0 2 (4) 2 4
3 3 0 3
4
0 tan
tan 0 0
3
argument 0 argument
2
4 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Example 8 (cont’d)
Find the modulus and argument of each of the following complex numbers :
(a) 3 (b) 4i (c) 4 4i (d) 3 3 3i
Solution:
2
(c) 4 4i 4 (4) 4 2 2 (d) 3 3 3i (3 3 ) 2 32 6
4 3
tan 1 tan
4 3 3
5
argument
4 6 6
5
argument
6
4 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
y
In determining θ from the equation tan , we have to observe
the signs x and y. x
4 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
From z = a + bi,
a r cos , b r sin
z a bi
r cos (r sin )i
z r (cos i sin )
The above form of the complex number
z is called the polar form (or modulus-
argument form).
4 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Example 8 (cont’d)
Express the following complex numbers in polar form :
(a) 3 (b) 4i (c) 4 4i (d) 3 3 3i
Solution:
(a) 3 3(cos 0 i sin 0)
(b) 4i 4 cos i sin
2 2
(c) 4 4i 4 2 cos i sin
4 4
5 5
(d) 3 3 3i 6 cos i sin
6 6
4 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Example 9
Express the following complex numbers in standard form :
3 3 2 2
(a) 2 cos i sin (b) cos i sin
4 4 3 3
Solution:
3 3 1 1 Change all the
(a) 2 cos i sin 2 i
4 4 2 2 terms into
1 i values.
2 2 1 3
(b) cos i sin i
3 3 2 2
1 3
i
2 2
4 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
When two complex numbers are in polar form, their product and
quotient can be easily found.
Let z1 r1 (cos 1 i sin 1 ), z 2 r2 (cos 2 i sin 2 ).
z1 z 2 r1 (cos 1 i sin 1 ) r2 (cos 2 i sin 2 )
r1r2 [(cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) i (sin 1 cos 2 cos 1 sin 2 )]
r1r2 [cos(1 2 ) i sin(1 2 )]
Hence,
z1 z2 r1r2 [cos(1 2 ) i sin(1 2 )]
z1 z2 z1 z 2 and arg( z1 z 2 ) arg z1 arg z2
cos A cos B sin A sin B cos( A B)
sin A cos B cos A sin B sin( A B )
4 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Let z1 r1 (cos 1 i sin 1 ), z 2 r2 (cos 2 i sin 2 ) and z 2 0.
z1 r1 (cos 1 i sin 1 )
z 2 r2 (cos 2 i sin 2 )
r1 (cos 1 i sin 1 )(cos 2 i sin 2 )
r2 (cos 2 i sin 2 )(cos 2 i sin 2 )
r1[(cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) i (sin 1 cos 2 cos 1 sin 2 )
r2 (cos 2 2 sin 2 2 )
r1
[cos(1 2 ) i sin(1 2 )]
r2
z1 r1 cos A cos B sin A sin B cos( A B)
[cos(1 2 ) i sin(1 2 )]
z 2 r2 sin A cos B cos A sin B sin( A B)
z1 z1 z sin 2 A cos 2 A 1
and arg 1 arg z1 arg z2
z2 z2 z2
4 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Example 10
Simplify the following :
(a) 2(cos 33 i sin 33) 3(cos 27 i sin 27)
6 cos i sin
3 3
(b)
2 cos i sin
6 6
Solution:
(a) 2(cos 33 i sin 33) 3(cos 27 i sin 27)
2 3[cos(33 27) i sin(33 27)]
6(cos 60 i sin 60)
4 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Example 10 (cont’d)
Simplify the following :
(a) 2(cos 33 i sin 33) 3(cos 27 i sin 27)
6 cos i sin
3 3
(b)
2 cos i sin
6 6
Solution:
6 cos i sin
3 3
(b)
2 cos i sin
6 6
6
3 6
cos i sin
2 3 6
3 cos i sin
6 6
5 Roots of Polynomial Equations
Let us first introduce conjugate
complex numbers.
For any complex number z = a + bi,
a – bi is called the conjugate of z
and is denoted by or z*.
From the definition, we see that z
and z* have identical real parts but
their imaginary parts are of opposite
signs.
The points z and z* in an Argand
diagram are symmetric about the
real axis.
5 Roots of Polynomial Equations
Hence, we have the following properties of conjugate complex
numbers.
z z z z 2bi
arg z arg z zz
2
z z 2a zz z
5 Roots of Polynomial Equations
Example 11
Find the conjugates of the following complex numbers :
(a) (3 i ) (2 4i )
3 4i
(b)
3 4i
Solution: 3 4i (3 4i )(3 4i )
(b)
(a) (3 i ) (2 4i ) (3 2) (1 4)i 3 4i (3 4i )(3 4i )
1 3i 9 24i 16i 2
Its conjugate is 1 3i. 9 16i 2
9 24i 16
9 16
In part (b), the
7 24
answer IS i
3 4i 25 25
NOT 3 4i !!! 7 24
Its conjugate is i.
25 25
5 Roots of Polynomial Equations
Consider the following quadratic equation:
x2 2x 5 0
2 2 2 4(1)(5)
x
2
2 4i
2
1 2i
We can see that if p + qi is a root of the equation, then its
conjugate, p – qi, is also the root of the equation.
5 Roots of Polynomial Equations
In fact, this can be generalized to the algebraic equation of
degree n with real coefficients. It is useful in solving
equations and doing factorization.
If f ( x) is a polynomial with real coefficients and p qi is a root
of the equation f ( x) 0, then its conjugate p qi is also a root of
the equation.
5 Roots of Polynomial Equations
Example 12
If x = 2 + 3i is a root of the equation x2 + ax + b = 0, find the
values of the real numbers a and b.
Solution: (Method 1)
x 2 3i is a root of the equation.
(2 3i ) 2 a (2 3i ) b 0
4 12i 9 2a 3ai b 0
(5 2a b) (12 3a )i 0
5 2a b 0......(1)
12 3a 0 ......(2)
From (2), 12 3a 0
a 4
Put a 4 into (1), a 4
5 2(4) b 0
b 13
b 13
5 Roots of Polynomial Equations
Example 12 (cont’d)
If x = 2 + 3i is a root of the equation x2 + ax + b = 0, find the
values of the real numbers a and b.
Solution: (Method 2)
x 2 3i is a root of the equation.
x 2 3i is also a root of the equation.
The quadratic equation is
[ x (2 3i )][ x (2 3i )] 0
[( x 2) 3i ][( x 2) 3i ] 0
( x 2) 2 (3i ) 2 0
x 2 4 x 4 (9) 0
x 2 4 x 13 0
a 4
b 13
5 Roots of Polynomial Equations
Example 13
Given that x 1 2i is a root of the cubic equation
3 x 3 4 x 2 11x 10 0,
solve the equation.
Solution:
x 1 2i is a root of the equation.
x 1 2i is also a root of the equation.
Hence the equation has the real factor
[ x (1 2i )][ x (1 2i )]
[( x 1) 2i ][( x 1) 2i ]
( x 1) 2 (2i ) 2
x 2 2 x 1 ( 4)
x2 2x 5
5 Roots of Polynomial Equations
Example 13 (cont’d)
Given that x 1 2i is a root of the cubic equation
3 x 3 4 x 2 11x 10 0,
solve the equation.
Solution:
3x 2
x 2 2 x 5 3 x 3 4 x 2 11x 10
3 x 3 6 x 2 15 x
2 x 2 4 x 10
2 x 2 4 x 10
3 x 3 4 x 2 11x 10 0
( x 2 2 x 5)(3x 2) 0
2
x 1 2i,
3
