Chapter 2

Formulation of the Research Problem and Hypothesis

Chapter Objectives
• Select a researchable topic;
• Formulation of the research problem and hypothesis;
• Comprehend the common concepts of review of related
literature;
• Describe the principal characteristics of the related
literature;
• Explain the functions of related literature;
• Explain why the need for critical reading for research,
• Demonstrate how to record the related review literature in
text and referencing section;
The Research Process : Steps in Conducting Research
Steps
Selecting and
Defining a
Problem

Literature review

Describing
Methodology of
Research

Collecting Data

writing the research report. Data presentation, Analyzing and Interpreting

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 Business Research Problem
• Business Research Problem is a situation or circumstance that
requires a solution to be described, explained, or predicted.

Some examples of Business Problems

• Training programs are perhaps not as effective as anticipated.
• Declining sales.
• Rising costs
• Inventory control is not effective
• Poor project performance
• Problems in Leadership
• Lack of employee commitment
 Selection of Research Problem and Topic
Attributes of a good research topic
Capability: is it feasible?
• Is the topic something with which you are really fascinated?
• Do you have, or can you develop within the project time frame, the
necessary research skills to undertake the topic?
• Is the research topic achievable within the available time?
• Will the topic still be current when you finish your project?
• Is the topic achievable within the financial resources that are likely to be
available?
• Are you reasonably certain of being able to gain access to data?
Appropriateness: is it worthwhile?
• Does the topic fit the specifications and meet the standards set by the
examining institution?
• Are you able to state your research question(s), aim and objectives clearly?
• Does the topic match your career goals (field of study)?

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 Selecting a topic
You
• the researcher values, belief, interests, relevance, and personal
experiences can influence the choice of a research topic
Supervisor
• Find out the research interests of the potential supervisors; have
a discussion with them; read their publications
Data Sources
• researchers are sometimes restricted to particular topics
because of access to or lack of access to data in the specific field
of study or time availability
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 Selecting a topic…Cont’d
Current trends
• researchers can select a topic based on how important a
particular issue is perceived to be to society at that point in time
Sponsor
• researchers can also restricted by the sponsor or funding
agency. Most funding agencies have specific topics of interests
which are based on their goals and objectives.
Research Gaps
• Discrepancies in existing research literature which need to be
addressed or areas of study where there are reasonable gaps in
the existing literature. The potential contribution to literature
lies in the research gap.
 Types of Research Gaps-in writing a research problem
A. Issue Gap
– An issue which is less discussed, or less represented in literature. Very little is
known about this issue. Ex: Corporate Governance, Think-tanks
B. Theory Gap
– A theory or theoretical framework which is less discussed, or less represented in
literature. Theory gap can also exist when current theories or conceptual models
are inadequate in addressing a particular research issue. –Evaluation model for
distance learning outcomes
C. Method Gap
– A research method which is less discussed or less represented in literature in
respect to a particular research topic/issue. Sometimes researchers make a case
for new research methods or approaches to be used for a particular research issue.
Inconclusive/conflicting empirical results can also create method gaps.
D. Context Gap
– A research context – geographic region – which is less discussed or less
represented in literature, especially in respect to a particular research issue.
E. Level of Analysis Gap
– A level of analysis (meta, macro, and micro) – which is less discussed or less
represented in literature, especially in respect to a particular research issue.

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The topic should be specific and realistic:
• Generally use the inverted pyramid

Broad introduction to topic

level of detail

Thus this research

question must be
answered!

Your research question

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 Examples

General Topic Distance Learning

Research Lack of students in distance

Problem classes

Purpose To study why students do not

statement attend distance education classes
Specific
Does the use of web site technology
Research in the classroom deter students from
Question enrolling in a distance education
class?

Title: Factors influencing students’ attendance in distance learning 9

 Research Questions
• Research questions are interrogative
statements that focus on what variables or
concepts are to be described and what
relationships might exist among them.

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Techniques Involved in Defining the
Problem

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 Steps in formulating a research problem:
Write
(Kumar 2011:48-50) research
problem

1. Identify a broad area of interest in your academic /professional field

2. Dissect the broad area in to sub areas(brainstorm)
3. Select the sub area in which you have decided to conduct the research
(process of elimination)

4. Raise research questions that you would like to

answer through the study

Preliminary
literature
review
12
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5. Formulate objectives for the study (one main aim/objective and
three or four sub objectives)

• Objectives are more generally acceptable to the research community as

evidence of the researcher’s clear sense of purpose and direction.

6. Assess objectives to make sure that they can

be attained in time available, and with financial
human resources and technical expertise
available

7. Double check you are sufficiently interested in

the study and have adequate resources for
doing it. 13
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 Example 2: Fertility and Mortality
Step 4
Step 2 Raise questions
Step 3
Step 1 Dissect Select
[Link] happens to fertility when
mortality declines?
[Link] in fertility and [Link] is the time lag between
Identify mortality Relation- the start of decline in mortality
FERTILITY [Link] of fertility ship and the start of decline in
AND behavior between fertility?
MORTALITY [Link] b/n fertility fertility and [Link] are the factors that
mortality contribute to the decline in
and mortality fertility,? etc.
[Link] of health services
on mortality
[Link] of contraceptives
on fertility behavior, etc. Step 5
Formulate Objectives
Main Objectives
Step 7 - to explore the relationship between fertility and
Step 6 mortality
Double Check Specific objectives:
1. that you are really Make Sure to find out the extent of the decline in fertility in
interested in the study Assess these objectives relation to the decline in mortality.
2. that you agree with the in the light of :  to ascertain the time lag between the decline in
objectives [Link] work involved mortality and the decline in fertility.
[Link] time available to you  to identify the factors that affect the changes in
[Link] you have adequate fertility.
[Link] financial resources at your
resources  to explore the relationship between socio-
disposal
[Link] you have the technical [Link] technical expertise in the economic-demographic characteristics of the
expertise to undertake the area population and the extent of changes in fertility
study and mortality. etc. 14
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 Hypothesis
The word hypothesis consists of two words:
•Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis
– ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification
and
– ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of a problem.
•It is a tentative statement about the solution of the
problem.
•Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be
verified empirically and based on some rationale.

•It is a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem.

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 The Hypotheses
• It is a proposition that is stated in testable form and predicts a
particular relationship between two (or more) variables.

• By test we mean either to confirm it to our satisfaction or to

prove it wrong.

• A clearly written hypothesis helps researchers to decide what

data to collect and how to analyze them.
– It typically implies that a change in one variable is caused by change in
another variable.

Example:
Employees who perceive greater opportunities for participation in decision
making would have a higher level of commitment.
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 The Hypotheses- Cont’d
Two Types of Hypothesis:

 For hypothesis testing: It is common to state research and null

hypotheses
 A null hypothesis (H0) is a statement about a status quo
 Alternative hypothesis (H1) is the opposite of the null hypothesis
 Alternative hypothesis is the research hypothesis- what a researcher
wants to investigate
Examples:
H0 : There is no academic performance difference between men and women.
H1 : There is significant academic performance difference between men
and women.

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 Teamwork (15 minutes)
• Identify researchable topic
• Dissect the broad area into sub areas
• Select one area & state research problem
• Indicate research question (s)
• Formulate Hypothesis of the study
• Indicate possible “Title” for your study

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IDENTIFYING and CRITICALLY REVIEWING

related LITERATURE

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Reflective Activity 1

What is a Literature
Review?

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 What is a Literature Review?
• “is a written summary of journal articles,
books and other documents (both published
and unpublished) that describes the past and
current state of information, organizes the
literature into topics and documents a need
for a proposed study.”

• A discussion of your knowledge that is

supported by the research literature.

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Reflective Activity 2

What are the Purpose of Review

Related Literature?

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Why Review Literature?/Purpose
To:
– determine what has already been written on
a topic
– identify previous approaches to the topic
– identify central issues in the field
– integrate what previous researchers have
found
– identify important issues still unresolved.

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 Why Review Literature…Cont’d
In relation to your own study, the literature
review can help in four ways. It can:
– Bring clarity and focus to your research
problem;
– Improve your research methodology;
– Broaden your knowledge base in your
research areas; and
– Contextualize your findings.

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Reflective Activity 3
• What are the characteristics of
a good literature review?

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 Characteristics of a good literature review
• The survey materials must be as recent as possible.

• Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased.

• Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study.

• Surveyed materials must have been based upon

genuinely original and true facts
• data to make them valid and reliable.

• Review materials must not be too few nor too many.

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Reflective Activity 4

Identify the Literature

sources available.

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 Literature sources available
i. Primary literature sources/grey literature-
publications without commercial purposes,
difficult to trace/: are the first occurrence of
a piece of work
 They include published sources such as
reports and some central and local
government publications such as planning
documents
 Unpublished manuscript such as letters,
memos and committee minutes
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 Literature sources available...Cont’d
ii. Secondary literature sources: these are
subsequent publication of primary literature
(books and journals)
 Aimed at a wider audience
 They are easier to locate than primary
literature as they are better covered by tertiary
literature.
iii. Tertiary literature sources/search tools/: these
are designed to help to locate primary and
secondary literature or to introduce a topic.
 Include: abstracts, indexes, and bibliographies
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 Conducting a Literature Review
• Evaluating the credibility of sources is one
of the most difficult aspects.
• The process of reviewing the related
literature comprise, among other things
includes:
a) active reading,
b) careful record keeping
c) selective note- taking, and
d) critical evaluation of the information.
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a) Active Reading
• Any research activity requires the
researcher(s) to be involved in a significant
amount of reading.
• Reading for research could take place in
three stages of the research project.
• These include the following:
• At the beginning of your research
• During your research
• After Your research
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a) Active Reading…Cont’d
• Therefore, as you read each source, you have to
evaluate the material based on the following
criteria:
1) The relevance of the work to your topic and
starting question.
2) The timeliness or recent of the work.
3) The author of the work ( based on all available
information).
4) The prestige or nature of the journal (scholarly or
popular press).
5) The controversial nature of the source (whether it
agrees with or contradicts other sources).
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b)Recording Your Reading
• As a researcher, you have to be careful from
the beginning of your research project up to
the end and even beyond your project.
• This will save you time and trouble in the long
run.
•  This is particularly important when it comes
to recording your reading.
• Finding it again some time after wards can be
even harder unless your methods of recording
and filing are thorough and systematic.

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 b)Recording Your Reading …
Cont’d
• There are a number of ways in which you
might collect and store this information.
These include notebooks, loose sheets of
paper and note cards (index cards).

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The Card Index
• A card index is a collection of lined cards of
various sizes (e.g. 5"x3", 6"x4", or 8"x5"),
which is meant to keep review notes and
reference information.

• The cards should include all the information

you are likely to need for inter-library loan
applications and for drawing up the
references or bibliography for your project
report.

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36
The following boxes offer some examples of what your
index cards might look like and what they can contain

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c)Note- Taking Techniques
1) Paraphrasing

• using the ideas of an author, but not his or

her exact word.
• “restating or rewording a passage from a
text, giving the same meaning in another
form"
• If you use the ideas or opinions from someone
else and restate them in your own words, you
still need to cite the source.

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 Note taking Techniques-Cont’d
2. Summarize:
•It is writing a summary of what the author says.
•Summarizing means taking ideas from a larger
passage and condensing them into your own
words.
•It is useful because to:
 miss out unnecessary details, such as examples
Use less words than the author, and therefore
the number of words will be minimized in your
writing.
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 Note- Taking Techniques-Cont’d
3. Direct Quote
•It means using the exact same words as the
original author.
•If you use the exact words of an author, you
need to include them in “quotation marks.”

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 During Quotation

• A short quotation (<= four lines) is placed

within the text. Quotation marks (“ ”) are used
around the quote. The quote is cited.
Example:
• Helmsing (2001:4) explains that
“decentralization has ceased to be a local
government affair and has turned into a local
governance issue.”

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During Quotation...Cont’d

• If a quotation is longer than four lines of text, it

should be block-indented and single-spaced.
– Do not use quotation marks at the beginning
or the end of the block quotation.
• Exception: Quotation within a quotation
– The block quote should be separated from
text by a double space, above and below the
block quotation.
– indenting the left margin is required.
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 Long Quotation, Example
• The argument that privatization would reduce corruption is also
defective. Experiences have shown that it has institutionalized
corruption into the body politics more than before. Turner
rightly captures the real situation of things in theses words:

The process of privatization creates new possibilities for

corruption in the determination of the price paid for the
enterprise, the terms of the privatization agreement and the
nature of bidding arrangements. The possibility exists that
favored individual and companies may acquire valuable
assets at below-market prices. The winners would be the
public official who organized the deals and the new owner
(Turner 1998:1). 43
 During Quotation
• Where a quotation has been changed or words are
added, it should be indicated as follows-by the use of
round bracket [ ] and ellipsis/three spaced dots …
1. “[…] it is clear that according to the current
understanding of governance, government is one among
many societal players or actors that are concerned with
public issues.”
2. “ Development is […] a cumulative process.”
3. “ The change should be very well felt by [the
community] and local officials.”---this shows that the
community is the author’s own insertion.

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Descriptive versus Critical (Analytical) writings

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 Literature referencing/
Systems of Referencing
• Referencing is a standardized way of
acknowledging the sources of information and
ideas that you have used in your academic
writing/scientific papers.
• The act of providing evidence for arguments
and perspectives presented in literature write
up – article, long essay, report and et cetera.
1. References provided within the text or the body of
the text /In-text citation
2. Compiled references at the end of the text /list of
references/ 46
 Literature referencing…Cont’d
Referencing Styles:
• Two of the most common styles are:
• the Harvard system,
• the American Psychological Association(
APA) system and

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 Citing references within the text
• The first method involves embedding details within the sentence
structure of your text. For example:
Haas and Arnold (1995) found that in the workplace about one
third of the characteristics that people use to judge
communication competence have to do with listening.
• The second method requires providing the author’s name and date
following a phrase or paragraph expressing an idea or concept
proposed or identified by another author which supports an
argument that you are discussing. For example:
It is the perception of many managers that they are often under
pressure to compromise personal ethical standards to meet
company goals (Cavanaugh, 1980).

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Key differences between Harvard and APA Systems of Referencing
Harvard System APA system Comment
Referencing in the text
(Lewis 2001) (Lewis,2001) Note punctuation
(Saunders and Williams 2001) (Saunders & Williams, 2001) Ampersand-‘&’ not
‘and’
For three and more authors: For up to five authors, for 1st
(Williams et al. 1999) occurrence:
Williams, Saunders &Staughton,
1999)
• Williams et al. (1999) •For subsequent occurrence:
Williams [Link]., 1999) Note punctuation
References in the references or
bibliography
Berman Brown, R. and Berman Brown, R. &
Saunders, M. (2008). Saunders, M. (2008). •Note use of ‘and’
Dealing with statistics: Dealing with statistics: What and ‘&’
What you need to know. you need to know.
Maidenhead: Open Maidenhead: Open
University Press. University Press.
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 D)Critical Evaluation of the Information
• Has the emphasis been given to the most
important and relevant authors and works?
• Are the sources up to date?
• Is the survey critical of authors and their
work where appropriate?
• Does the literature review focus on the
research concerns and questions (and not
deviate)?
• Does it read well?
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 Research Development (RD)
• RD is a set of strategic, proactive, and capacity-building
activities designed to facilitate individual faculty members,
teams of researchers, and central research administrations in
attracting extramural research funding, creating relationships,
and developing and implementing strategies that increase
institutional competitiveness.
• These activities are typically practiced at universities, but are
also in use at a variety of other research institutions.
End of Chapter 2

Thank you