ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
Organs and their function
Designed by Rosaliartbook
CONTENT
Glands: structure & functions Parathyroid Mechanisms of hormone
Definition Adrenal action
Types & functions of each Pineal Hormone target cell
Endocrine Thymus specificity
Exocrine Pancreas (islets of Half-life, onset & duration of
Langerhans) hormone activity
Major endocrine organs:
Control of hormone release
location, structure, function, Hormones
hormones Types Regulatory mechanisms
Pituitary Chemistry Hypothalamus
Thyroid Prostaglandin
O V E RV I E W
CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system’s function is to communicate with cells using chemicals
called hormones.
Endocrine glands and their hormones regulate several metabolic processes
within cells, and the whole body.
Their actions are precise, they only affect specific target cells
4
CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Endocrine glands include the
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Other hormone - secreting
glands and tissues.
6
HORMONES
Tropic – target other endocrine glands and stimulate their
growth and secretion.
Sex – target reproductive tissues.
Anabolic – stimulate anabolism in target cells.
Steroid – molecules are manufactured by endocrine cells
from cholesterol.
Nonsteroid – molecules are synthesized primarily from
amino acids.
7
C H E M I C A L C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F H O R M O N E S
8
GENERAL
PRINCIPLES OF
HORMONE ACTION
Hormones signal a cell by binding to the target cell’s
specific receptors in a “lock-and-key” mechanism
Different hormone-receptor interactions produce different
regulatory changes within the target cell through chemical
reactions
Combined hormone actions:
Synergism
Permissiveness
Antagonism
9
STRUCTURE OF THE
P I T U I TA RY G L A N D
1.2 to 1.5 cm (about ½ inch) across
Weighs 0.5 g ( ounce)
Located on the ventral surface of the brain within the skull
Made up of two separate glands:
Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary gland)
Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary gland)
Adenohypophysis
Pars anterior forms the major portion of the adenohypophysis
and pars intermedia
11
ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
Three types of cells can be identified
according to their affinity for certain
stains
Chromophobes: Do not stain
Acidophils: Stain with acid stains
Basophils: Stain with basic stains
13
CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
ANTERIOR
P I T U I TA R Y
HORMONES
The anterior pituitary consists
mostly of epithelial tissue
arranged around blood vessels
and enclosed in a capsule of
collagenous connective tissue.
14
ANTERIOR
P I T U I TA RY G L A N D
HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES
16
NEUROHYPOPHYSIS:
ANTIDIURETIC
HORMONE
The neurohypophysis serves as a storage and release site for
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OT)
ADH
Prevents the formation of a large volume of urine, thereby
helping the body to conserve water
Causes a portion of each tubule in the kidney to reabsorb
water from the urine it is forming
19
CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
P O S T E R I O R P I T U I TA RY
HORMONES
Oxytocin plays a role in childbirth by
contracting muscles in the uterine wall, and in
milk-letdown by forcing milk into ducts from
the milk glands.
Stretching of the uterus in the latter stages of
pregnancy stimulates release of oxytocin.
Suckling of an infant at the breast stimulates
release of oxytocin after childbirth.
20
PINEAL GLAND
Tiny, pine nut–shaped structure located on the
dorsal aspect of the brain’s diencephalon region
Member of the nervous system because it receives
visual stimuli
Also a member of the endocrine system because it
secretes hormone
Melatonin secretion producing sleepiness occurs
during darkness due to lack of stimulation from
sympathetic ganglion
23
STRUCTURE OF
THE THYROID
GLAND
The thyroid gland is made up of two large lateral
lobes and a narrow connecting isthmus
A thin, wormlike projection of thyroid tissue, called
the pyramidal lobe, extends upward from the
isthmus
In an adult, the thyroid weighs approximately 30 g
(1 ounce)
24
CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
THYROID GLAND
Structure of the Gland
The thyroid consists of secretory parts called
follicles filled with hormone-storing colloid.
Follicular cells :
Tetraiodothyronine (T4), or thyroxine
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Regulate the metabolic rate of all cells, cell
growth, and tissue differentiation; it is said
to have a “general” target
C Cell – Calcitonin : Decreases blood Ca2+ levels.
25
S T R U C T U R E O F T H E PA R AT H Y R O I D
G L A N D S A N D PA R AT H Y R O I D
HORMONE (PTH)
Four or five parathyroid glands are embedded in the
posterior surface of the thyroid’s lateral lobes
Tiny, rounded bodies within thyroid tissue that are
formed by compact, irregular rows of cells
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is an antagonist to
calcitonin and the primary hormone that maintains
calcium homeostasis
PTH acts on bone and kidney
26
HORMONES OF THE
THYROID GLAND
A N D PA R AT H Y R O I D
GLANDS
STRUCTURE OF
THE ADRENAL
GLANDS
The adrenal glands are located on top of
the kidneys, fitting like caps
They are made up of two portions:
Adrenal cortex: Composed of endocrine
tissue
Adrenal medulla: Composed of
neurosecretory tissue
28
A D R E N A L C O RT E X
All adrenal cortical hormones are steroids and are known as
corticosteroids
The adrenal cortex is composed of three distinct layers of secreting
cells:
Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis
The adrenal medulla is made up of modified postganglionic
neurons that are connected to the sympathetic nervous system.
29
CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and
HORMONES OF THE
ADRENAL MEDULLA norepinephrine into the blood stream.
The effects of these hormones resemble those of the
sympathetic division neurotransmitters of the same
name, except that they last up to 10 times longer when
they are secreted as hormones.
31
CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
HORMONES OF
The are used in times of stress and for “fight or flight.”
THE ADRENAL
MEDULLA Release of medullary hormones is regulated by nervous
impulses from the central nervous system.
32
STRUCTURE OF
T H E PA N C R E AT I C
ISLETS
The pancreas is an elongated gland that
weighs approximately 100 g (3.5 ounces)
Its head lies in the duodenum, it extends
horizontally behind the stomach, and then
it touches the spleen
It is composed of endocrine and exocrine
tissues
33
STRUCTURE OF
T H E PA N C R E AT I C
ISLETS
Each islet contains five primary types of
endocrine cells joined by gap junctions:
Alpha cells (α cells)
Beta cells (β cells)
Delta cells (δ cells)
Pancreatic polypeptide cells (F or PP
cells)
Epsilon cells (ε cells)
34
R E G U L AT I O N O F B L O O D G L U C O S E L E V E L S
37
TESTES AND
O VA R I E S
Testes
Paired organs in the scrotum of the male
Composed of seminiferous tubules and a
scattering of interstitial cells
Ovaries
Primary sex organs in the female
Set of paired glands in the pelvis that
produce several types of sex hormones
38
Tissue that forms on the lining of the uterus as a connection
between the circulatory systems of the mother and the developing
P L A C E N TA child
Serves as a temporary endocrine gland that produces human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), estrogens, and progesterone
39
THYMUS
Gland located in the mediastinum just
beneath the sternum
The thymus is large in children and
begins to atrophy at puberty; by old
age, it is a vestige of fat and fibrous
tissue
40
GASTRIC AND
INTESTINAL
MUCOSA
The mucous lining of the GI tract contains cells that
produce both endocrine and exocrine secretions
GI hormones, such as gastrin, secretin, and
cholecystokinin (CCK), play regulatory roles in
coordinating the secretory and motor activities
involved in the digestive process
41
H E A RT
The heart has a secondary endocrine
role
Hormone-producing cells produce
several atrial natriuretic peptides
(ANPs), including atrial natriuretic
hormone (ANH)
Decreases blood pressure
42
MEDICINAL USES OF
HORMONES
Both steroid hormones and thyroid hormones are effective when
taken by mouth. They are not split apart during digestion and
easily cross the intestinal lining because they are lipid-soluble.
By contrast, peptide and protein hormones, such as insulin, are
not effective oral medications because digestive enzymes destroy
them by breaking their peptide bonds. Therefore people who need
insulin must take it by injection.
HORMONES AND STRESS
Sympathetic ANS: fight-or-flight response
Endocrine response
Epinephrine: facilitates sympathetic ANS response
Cortisol: deals with starvation stress
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): conserves water
Growth hormone: increases blood glucose levels
Insulin production reduced: increases blood glucose levels
45
• Endocrine glands decrease in size
• Muscular strength decreases as GH levels decrease
• ADH levels increase due to slower break down in liver and kidneys
• Calcitonin levels decrease; increase risk of osteoporosis
L I F E - S PA N C H A N G E S
• PTH level changes contribute to risk of osteoporosis
• Insulin resistance may develop
• Changes in melatonin secretion affect the body clock
• Thymosin production declines increasing risk of infections
46
AGING AND THE
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
Decline in hormone secretion
Common clinical conditions
Type 2 diabetes mellitus
Osteoporosis
I M PA C T O F I N S U L I N Deficiency in insulin production or action impairs the
DEFICIENCY ability of cells to take up and use glucose.
Results in hyperglycemia (abnormally high blood glucose
levels):
Hyperglycemia causes excess urine production,
dehydration, thirst
Chronically, hyperglycemia damages small blood vessels
and nerves
Results in impaired glucose metabolism: Lethargy, hunger
Impairs protein synthesis: Tissue wasting
ENDOCRINE
DISORDERS
Caused by abnormal hormone
effects in target tissues
Could result from hypersecretion or
hyposecretion of hormones
Undersensitivity or oversensitivity
in target tissues
51
H Y P E R C O RT I S O L I S M
Excess cortisol production causes
many visible clinical signs, as
shown by this woman with
hypercortisolism.
THYROID
HORMONE
DISORDERS
A. Hypothyroidism (left) and
hyperthyroidism (right) result in
opposite clinical signs and
symptoms.
GROWTH HORMONE
Growth hormone (GH) secretion is controlled by
hypothalamic factors and negative feedback. GH
stimulates growth in cooperation with IGF-I, and
independently increases glucose and fatty acid
availability to fuel tissue growth and repair.
Growth Hormone Ups and Downs
CLINICAL • Hypersecretion of GH in children
A P P L I C AT I O N • Hypersecretion of GH in adults
• Hyposecretion of GH in children
Figure shows oversecretion of GH in adulthood as changes occur in the same
person at ages (a) nine, (b) sixteen, (c) thirty-three, and (4) fifty-two
55
GROWTH
HORMONE
DISORDERS
A. 5.5 year-old boy with GH
deficiency (left) is considerably
shorter and chubbier than his
fraternal twin sister.
B. A man with gigantism alongside
his identical twin.
QUESTIONS?
57
Word Part Meaning Example
The Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
andr/o male An androgen is any male sex hormone.
cortic/o cortex Adrenocorticotropic hormone acts on the adrenal cortex.
glyc/o glucose, sugar Hyperglycemia is high blood glucose.
insul/o pancreatic islet, island Insulin is a hormone produced by pancreatic islets.
lact/o milk Prolactin stimulates milk production in the breasts.
nephr/o kidney Epinephrine (adrenaline) is secreted by the adrenal gland near the
kidney.
WORD ANATOMY
Word Part Meaning Example
oxy- sharp, acute Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions during labor.
ren/o kidney The adrenal glands are near (ad-) the kidneys.
-sterone steroid hormone Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the testes.
toc/o labor See “oxy” example.
trop/o acting on, influencing Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the testes.
ur/o urine Antidiuretic hormone promotes reabsorption of water in the
kidneys and decreases excretion of urine.
WORD ANATOMY
Word Part Meaning Example
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues
natri sodium (L. Atrial natriuretic peptide stimulates
natrium) release of sodium in the urine.
-poiesis making, forming Erythropoietin is a hormone from the
kidneys that stimulates production of red
blood cells.
WORD ANATOMY
RECOMMENDED McConnell, T. H. & Hull, K. L. (2011).
READING Human form and function: Essentials of
anatomy& physiology. Philadelphia:
Wolters Kluwer, Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.
Shier, D., Lewis, R. & Butler, J. (2002).
Hole’s human anatomy & physiology. New
York: McGraw Hill.
Tortora, Gerard J. & Derrickson, Bryan H.
(2011). Principles of anatomy and
physiology. Somerset, New Jersey: John
Wiley & Sons.