Civil Engineering Materials

Timber and Wood Products

1
 Timber in history 2

• Timber is one of the

oldest building material
known.
• It has been used in
buildings in most parts
of the world for
thousands of years.
• In low energy ages,
timber was the natural
material of choice.

Melbourne’s Exhibition
Building 1880
 Timber’s potential today 3

• Timber is a light
construction material
with a high strength to
weight ratio.
• Economical and easy
to use, it is available as
a structural and
appearance product,
and suitable for a wide
range of uses.
Hardwood in a
drying yard
 The nature of timber 4

• Timber is a natural
product, drawn from
the wood in the trunks
of trees.
• Its character is
consistent with the
species of tree and the
form and growth over
time of the wood in it.

Growth in a native forest

 Definition 5

• Wood suitable for building or other engineering purposes is

called timber
– Standing timber: part of a living tree
– Rough timber: part of a felled tree
– Converted timber: sawn to various forms like beams,
battens and planks, etc.
– Dressed timber: sawn timber which has been placed and
worked to the required condition.
– Clear timber: timber free from defects.
– Structural timber: timber used in framing and load bearing
structures.
 Classification of trees 6

• Endogenous: Grows inwards.

– Grow in longitudinal fibrous mass like palm, cane, bamboo,
banana, etc. Except bamboo unsuitable for engineering
purpose.
• Exogenous: Grow outwards.
– Conifers: Evergreen trees yielding soft wood. Deodar, chir,
fir, kail, pine, etc. Distinct annual rings, straight fibers, light
color, resinous and light weight.
– Deciduous: Flat broad leaf trees yielding hard wood. Oak,
teak, shishum, poplar and maple. Indistinct annual rings,
non-resinous, dark in color and heavy weight
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Cross-section of exogenous tree 8
 Cross-section of exogenous tree 9

Parts of tree Cross-section of trunk

 Structure of tree 10

Pith or Medula: innermost

portion or core of tree.
Heart wood: inner annual
rings surrounding pith.
Sap wood: outer annual
rings that transmit sap from
root to branches.
Cambium: thin layer below
bark, not converted to sap
wood as yet.
Bark: outermost protective
layer of cells and woody
fibers that splits and peels
off. It is the skin of the stem.
 Structure of tree 11

Annual rings: these consist

of woody fiber arranged in
distinct circles or rings
around the pith generally
one in every year.
Medullary rays: thin
horizontal veins from bark
to pith to carry sap
inwards. Only few are
visible to naked eye and
they hold the annual rings
together.
 Tree growth 12

• Spring season
 In spring the roots of the tree suck sap as food from the soil
which reaches the branches and the leaves.
 Sap contains moisture which gets evaporated.
 It absorbs carbon from air in presence of sunlight and
becomes denser.
• Autumn season
– Sap descends under the bark and leaves a thick layer
– Sap layer transformed into wood as cambium layer
– New layer added each year as annual ring
– Sap carried through medullary rays from bark to interior
 Tree growth 13

• New wood on outside of tree

– oldest wood on the inside
– youngest wood on the outside
– diameter largest at the base
– one ring (layer) per growing season
• Tree in forest grows toward light
– trunk is straight
– lower branches die
– leaving small knots in wood
• Bark protects wood from damage
– the tree sheds bark each year
 Hard and soft wood characteristics 14

Property Soft wood Hard wood

Color Lighter Darker
Growth Faster Slower
Weight Lighter Heavier
Density Low High
Annual rings Distinct Indistinct
Heartwood & Indistinguishable Distinguishable
sap wood
Strength Strong along grains Strong along &
across grains
Conversion Easy Difficult
Resinous Exists in pores Does not exist
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 Characteristics of good timber 16

• Obtained from heartwood area of tree and free from sap

• Should have straight and close fibers
• Dark uniform color with uniform texture
• When struck, sonorous (loud & deep) ringing sound is
produced
• Narrow annular rings, closer the rings greater is the strength
• Compact medullary rays
• Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface
• No clogging of saw teeth during sawing
• Free from the defects like dead knots, shakes etc
• Heavy weight
• Bright and smooth surface when planed
 Defects in timber – during growth 17

Shakes: separations between Heart shakes

annual rings
• Heart shake: radial splits in
heartwood due to shrinkage,
when tree is over matured.
Cracks start from pith and run
towards sap wood. These are
wider at centre and diminish
outwards.
• Star shake: radial splits or
cracks wide at circumference Star shakes
and diminishing towards the
centre of the tree. This defect
may arise from severe frost
and fierce heat of sun. Star
shakes appear as the wood
dries below the fibre
saturation point.
 Defects in timber – during growth 18

• Cup shake: appears Cup/ring shakes

as curved split which
partly or wholly
separates annual rings
from one another. It is
caused due to
excessive frost action
on the sap present in
the tree, especially Radial shakes
when the tree is
young.
• Radial shake: similar
to star shakes but are
finer, irregular and
numerous
 Defects in timber – during growth 19

• Upsets: crushing of fibres Upset

running transversely during
the growth of the tree due to
strong winds
• Twisted fibers: wind
constantly turning the trunk
of young tree in one direction.
• Rind galls: growth of sapwood
layer over wounds after the
branch has been cut off in an
irregular manner. Twisted fibers
The newly
developed layers
do not unite
properly with the
old rot, thereby
leaving cavities,
from where
decay starts.
 Defects in timber - knots 20

• Knots: root of small branches buried in mother branch

annual rings. This modifies the tissues in elliptical or
concentric circles . Knot disturbs the homogeneity , strength
and workability of wood.
– Dead or loose knot: separable
– Live or sound knot: inseparable
• Size based classification
– Pin knot: under 12 mm
– Small knot: 12 to 20 mm
– Medium knot: 20 to 40 mm
– Large knot: over 40 mm
Defects in timber - knots 21
 Defects in timber - knots 22

Live knot Dead knot

 Defects in timber 23

• Checks is a longitudinal
crack which is usually
normal to the annual
rings. These adversely
affect the durability of
timber because they
readily admit moisture
and air.
Defects in timber 24
Defects in timber 25
 Defects in timber – diseases and decay
• Diseases
• Dry rot: fungus turns timber
to dry powder and the timber
looses its strength. It occurs
when the timber is
imperfectly seasoned and
placed in a moist, warm and
confined atmosphere having
no free access of air. Fungus
rapidly dies when exposed to
air or sunlight. The best
remedy is to cut away the
affected part and paint the
remaining part.

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 Defects in timber – diseases and decay
• Diseases
• Wet rot: When timber is
subjected to alternate
wet and dry conditions,
decomposition of
tissues takes place. This
is not caused by fungal
attack. To avoid wet rot,
well seasoned timber is
used with preservatives
and paints.

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 Defects in timber – diseases and decay
• Decay
– Decay due to fungal and
bacterial attack
– Damage due to insects
• Termites, white ants
• Beetles: powder post beetles,
long horn beetles, ambrosia
beetle, furniture beetles, death
watch beetles
• Carpenter ants
– Damage due to rodents (mice,
rats, squirrels, etc.)
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 Seasoning of timber 29

• Seasoning: The process of drying the wood to a moisture

content approximately equal to the average humidity of
the surroundings, where it is to be permanently fixed.
• Irregular drying causes irregular shrinkage leading to
warping and shakes formation
• Objectives:
– To reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement in
structure.
– To increase strength, durability, and workability.
– To reduce its tendency to split and decay.
– To make the timber suitable for painting.
– To reduce the weight of timber.
 Seasoning methods 30

• Air or natural seasoning: timber stacked in ventilated

shady place. Slow process takes six months to two
years
• Kiln or artificial seasoning: steam chamber with
controllable temperature and humidity. Rapid 4-5
days.
 Natural seasoning – Air drying 31

• The log of wood is sawn into

planks of convenient sizes
and stacked under a covered
shed in cross-wise direction
in alternate layers so as to
permit free circulation of air.
• The duration for drying
depends upon the type of
wood and the size of planks.
• The rate of drying is
however very slow.
• Air seasoning reduces the
moisture content of the
wood to 12–15 per cent.
 Natural seasoning – Air drying 32

Advantages
• Not much attention needed
• Simple and cheap method
• Less chances of damage to
timber
Disadvantages
• Very slow process
• Considerable space is
required
• Difficult to get desirable
moisture content
• Chances of attack by fungi
and insects
 Artificial seasoning – Water seasoning 33

• Logs of wood are completely immersed in a running

stream of water.
• Larger ends of logs are kept pointing up-stream.
• Sap, sugar and gum etc. are leached out of the wood
and replaced by water.
• The logs are then taken out and left to dry in open
place.
• Disadvantage: the process reduces the elasticity and
durability of the timber. The timber becomes brittle.
 Artificial seasoning 34

• It is quick method, and moisture content can be kept under control (4-12%
depending upon tropical conditions).
• For dry regions, the water content may be 4-6 %.
• For humid regions, the water content may be around 10%.
• The most common method of artificial seasoning is kiln seasoning method.
• Stacks are arranged for free circulation of heated air with some moisture or
superheated steam. The circulating air takes up moisture required from wood and
seasons it.
• For most successful kiln-seasoning the timber should be brought to as high a
temperature as it will stand without injury before drying is begun; otherwise the
moisture in the hot outer fibers of the wood will tend to flow towards the cooler
interior.
• With kiln drying there is a little loss in strength of timber, usually less than 10 per
cent.
• The wood is more thoroughly and evenly dried, thus reducing the hygroscopicity
of the wood.
Artificial seasoning – Kiln seasoning 35
 Seasoning of timber 36

Air seasoning Kiln seasoning

Slow process Quick process
Simple and economical Technical and expensive
Difficult to reduce moisture Moisture reduced to any
content below 15 to 18% desired level
Timber more prone to fungi Timber less prone to fungi and
and insect attack insect attack
More stacking space needed Less stacking space needed
Stronger timber is obtained Timber obtained is
comparatively weaker
 Artificial seasoning – chemical seasoning 37

• Chemical seasoning (salt seasoning):

– The timber is immersed in a solution of soluble salt.
– It is then taken out and seasoned in ordinary way.
– The interior surface of timber dries in advance of exterior one and chances of formation of external
cracks are reduced.
• An aqueous solution of certain chemicals have lower vapour pressures than that of pure
water. If the outer layers of timber are treated with such chemicals the vapour pressure
will reduce and a vapour pressure gradient is setup. The interior of timber, containing no
salts, retains its original vapour pressure and, therefore, tends to dry as rapidly as if there
had been no treatment. The result is to flatten the moisture gradient curves, to reduce the
slope of the curves, and consequently to reduce the internal stresses induced during
drying. Since it is these stresses which are responsible for defects such as checks, etc. a
chemically treated timber will exhibit fewer defects. Common salt or urea are generally
used; the latter is preferred as the corrosive action of common salt is a drawback.
• Electrical seasoning:
• The logs are placed in such a way that their two ends touch the electrodes. Current is
passed , wood resists the flow of current. During this process, heat is generated which
results in drying of timber. The drawback is that the wood may split.
 Timber preservation 38

• Preservation is protection of timber from attack of

insects and internal decay.
• Perfect seasoning is the best form of timber
preservation.
• Methods of preservation
– Tarring
– Charring
– Painting
– Creosoting
– Ascue treatment
– Fire proofing
 Methods of preservation 39

• Tarring: A coat of tar or tar mixed with pitch is

applied. Used for rough types of work, such as timber
fences, ends of door and window frames (built into
the walls).
• Charring: to prevent dry rot and insect attacks, the
lower ends of posts to be embedded in ground are
charred. The posts are charred to depth of 1.5 cm
over a wood fire and then quenched in water.
• Painting: carried out on the thoroughly seasoned
wood otherwise paint may confine sap and cause the
decay.
40
 Methods of preservation 41

• Creosoting:
– Creosote oil is most widely used preservative treatment where
dark color and odour do not make product too objectionable.
– It is applied under pressure of 9 bars and at a temp of 50oC.
– Creosoting preserves timber from rot and insect attacks.
– It is usually employed for piles, poles and railway sleepers.
• Ascue treatment: Ascue is in powder form. A solution is
prepared by dissolving 6 parts of powder in 100 parts by
weight of water. The solution is sprayed on the timber.
• Fire proofing: Timber made fire resistance by soaking in
NH4SO4, NH3Cl, NH4PO3, NaAs, ZnCl.
 Types of preservatives 42

• Preservatives
– Oil type preservatives: applied over outside of exposed timber,
give un-pleasant smell, timber can not be painted. e.g.
cerosote, solignum, carbolinium.
– Water soluble preservatives: are odorless organic or inorganic
salts as zinc chloride, boric acid etc. These are applied to timber
used inside locations only. Preservative used in water 6 part of
powder and 100 parts by weight of water.
– Solvent treatment: Consist of toxic chemical compounds as
pentachlorophenole, bezene-hexa-chloride, dichlorodiphenyl
trichloro-ethane (D.D.T) and copper naphathenate. These are
dissolved in kerosene, sprit etc. The treated timber can be
painted, waxed or polished.
– Acetic anhydride treatment: It is used for veneers, plywood
and light lumbers protection against decay by acetylation. They
are treated with acetic anhydride vapor, which minimizes
swelling and improves resistance to decay and attack by insects.
 Types of preservative treatment 43

• Treatment processes
– Surface application: also known as brush and spray
method. At least two coats are applied. Hot solution of
preservative is used if possible. Used for treating material
on site. This method is used when naturally resistant
timbers are used.
– Soaking treatment: It is also known as steeping. Seasoned
timber is submerged in the preservative for 7-10 days.
Used for timber having sapwood, and for light and medium
density timber.
– Hot and cold process: In this process timber is stacked in
to the tank and cold preservative is run in to the tank. The
preservative is then heated to 95ᵒC and maintained for
suitable period. After that it is allowed to cool until the
required absorption is obtained. A penetration upto 5 cm
is obtained.
 Types of preservative treatment 44

• Treatment processes
– Pressure process: injecting preservative under pressure
into the timber is the most effective method of treating
timber with preservative.
 Wood products 45

• Veneers
• Plywood
• Fiber Boards
• Particle Boards or Chip Boards
• Block Boards
• Batten Boards
• Lamina Boards
 Wood products 46

• Veneers
– Thin sheets of wood peeled
off, sliced or sawn from a
log of wood having
attractive or artistic grain
arrangement
– Sheet thickness from 0.4
mm to3mm
– High quality material is used
as a decorative finish.
– Lower grade material is
used to make plywood and
similar products.
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49
 Wood products 50

• Plywood
– Under pressure gluing together
of veneer plies in odd number
to make 3 mm to 6 mm thick
sheet
– Grains of alternate layers at
right angle to each other
– Outer plies called face plies or
faces
– Used for covering or paneling
of walls, doors, furniture and
shuttering
 Wood products 51

• Plywood Advantages
– Better appearance
– Stronger than same thickness wood
– Elastic and may be bent to give any shape
– Not much affected by climatic changes
– Uniform strength in all directions
– Available in large sizes not possible in wood
– Almost negligible shrinkage and expansion
– Does not split under nails
 Plywood 52

Three ply panel

Plywood is generally
made in two ways
• Cold pressing
– The adhesives are set
at room temperature
• Hot pressing Five ply panel
– The glued veneers are
pressed in large
hydraulic presses. The
leaves of these presses
are electrically heated
(150–250 oC).
53
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55
56
 Lamina board 57

• It is a board having a core of wood strips (7 mm

thick) glued together face to face to form a slab
which in turn is glued between two or more veneers.
• The lamina boards are light, strong and do not split
or crack easily.
• Uses: walls, ceilings, partitions and packing cases.
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59
 Block board 60

• The core consists of smaller timber block upto 25

mm in width.
• Uses: construction of railway carriages, bus bodies,
marine & river crafts, furniture, partitions , panelling,
prefabricated houses, etc.
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62
 Batten board 63

• Uses: door panels, table tops, etc.

Chip Board 64
 Timber dries at different rates 65

• Pines have a porous cell structure:

– They can be dried very quickly.
– Turn around time from saw to store can be as low
as a week.
• Hardwoods have a non-porous cell structure:
– The moisture must diffuse through the cell wall.
– Drying can be very slow.
– It must be done carefully.
 Grain strength and stiffness 66

Properties of the grain

Direction of grain

Strong parallel to grain & stiff parallel to grain

Weak perpendicular to grain

 Testing of timber 67

• Some important which are performed to determine

the mechanical properties of timber are:
– Tensile strength test
– Compressive strength test
– Shear strength test
– Bending strength test
– Moisture content
 Methods of sawing timber 68

• Timber may generally be sawn in one of the

following ways:
– Ordinary sawing
– Tangential sawing
– Radial sawing
– Quarter sawing
 Ordinary sawing 69

• It is also called flat or slab

sawing
• Advantage: It is very easy
and quick method of sawing.
It is most economical
method and wastage of
timber is minimum.
• Disadvantage: The planks are
liable to warp and twist as a
result of unequal shrinkage.
The surface of plank show
varying features.
 Tangential sawing 70

• The boards or planks are sawn

out of the log tangentially to the
annular rings.
• Adopted when annual rings are
very distinct and medullary rays
are not clearly defined.
• Advantage: economical due to
less wastage and involves less
labour.
• Disadvantage: sections obtained
are weak and do not suit for
heavy work as for floor etc.
 Radial sawing 71

• The sawing is done parallel to the

medullary rays & perpendicular to
annual rings
• Used for conversion of hard timber.
• Advantage:
– The cut section shrinks at uniform
rate and warping is therefore less.
– The wood is used for high quality
work
– It gives wood with decorative effect
• Disadvantage:
– Wastage is higher
– Cost of sawing is higher and more
time is needed in sawing
 Quarter sawing 72

• In this method, the log is cut into four

quarters.
• Disadvantage:
– Tendency to bend in a transverse direction
– More labour is required and results in
more wastage.
 Common market forms 73

• Log: trunk of tree left after cutting all branches.

• Baulk: roughly squared sawn log.
• Batten: timber whose cross-sectional dimensions do not exceed 5
cm in either direction.
• Plank: it is the timber whose thickness does not exceed 5 cm but
width exceeds 5 cm
• Board: it is a thin plank under 5 cm thick and 10 cm or more in
width
• Pole: it is a long, solid, straight timber of a tree 10-30 cm in
diameter and gradually tapering.
• Post: timber used in upright position in building fencing or other
structural work.
• Sleeper: piece of timber used as transverse support under rails in
railway lines.