CHANGING PERCEPTIONS OF MAN’S RELATIONSHIP WITH NATURE

TILL THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY

ANCIENT MESOPOTEMIA
The Hanging Gardens probably did not really "hang"
in the sense of being suspended from cables or ropes.
The name comes from an inexact translation of the
Greek word kremastos, or the Latin wordpensilis,
which means not just "hanging", but "overhanging"
as in the case of a terrace or balcony.

The royal gardens of Mesopotamia were huge by any

standard. Sennacherib, for example, had to build
almost six miles of major irrigation canals to water
the royal gardens of Nineveh. Unlike Egypt, space was
not a problem in Assyria and Babylonia, which might
account for one major difference in their gardens: the
lack of extreme orderliness. In Mesopotamia, the
land was used as it was found, with hillsides,
depressions, streams, paths and canals incorporated Hanging gardens of babylon
into the garden's plan. 

This legendary garden, one of the seven wonders of

the ancient world, was built on the banks of the
Euphrates river circa 600 B.C. It may never have
existed except in the imagination of Greek poets and
historians although archaeologists claim to have
found the remains of its walls. 
ANCIENT EGYPT
Funeral gardens:
Funeral gardens were miniature versions of house gardens that were placed in tombs. They usually had a small
square house or pavilion with wooden columns, surrounded by a wall, Within the wall was a basin surrounded by a
row of trees. The dead were traditionally surrounded by the objects they would have enjoyed in life, and it was
expected that they would continue to enjoy their gardens in their afterlife. 
Temple gardens:
Gardens of Amun from the Temple of Karnak, painting in the tomb of Nakh, the chief gardener, early 14th century
B.C. (Royal Museum of Art and History, Brussels.)
Temples often had extensive gardens. The hymns painted on the walls of tombs show that religious ceremonies
centred on the cycles of nature and the changing seasons. Temple gardens often were the homes of animals sacred
to the gods, such as the ibis and the baboon. Flowers were part of all the religious ceremonies during the time of the
god Amon. These gardens also produced medicinal herbs and spices.

Gardens of Amun from the Temple of Karnak, painting in the tomb of Nakh, the chief gardener, early 14th century
B.C. (Royal Museum of Art and History, Brussels)
Domestic gardens:
 The general layout of a garden and its buildings
follows a time-honoured pattern, which can still be
seen today in the humblest homestead, for
example, in the oasis of Bahariya. The property is
enclosed with a wall all round. Inside the gateway is
an unroofed courtyard, filled with trees. Then,
there is another wall and another door. The second
courtyard is also unroofed, and contains more
trees, providing shade and fruit, and here there is a
vegetable patch and a vine shading a work area, or
the entrance to the house.

Palace gardens
Though larger, palace gardens were used in a
similar manner to domestic gardens. Most were
built of mud brick and have disappeared. A few
were made in stone. They were within temple
complexes. Both had palace gardens but little
survives, even of the palaces, and they were
probably used only when later kings were visiting
the temples at festival times.

Ancient Egyptian Garden-Home

 ANCIENT ROME
Roman gardens began as practical features. Large or small, they were sources of vegetables, herbs, and fruit for the
household. However, by the imperial period, any garden of significant size could incorporated plants, water features,
and statues to create a carefully designed haven for the garden’s owner.
 
Favorite Roman Garden Plants:
A whole range of flowers and plants were popular in Roman gardens. Herbs were a longstanding favorite, because of
their use in cooking and medicine. Thyme, mint, savory, celery seed, basil, bay, and hyssop were some of the most
popular. Romans also liked to add color to their gardens in the form of flowers. Favorite blooms in Roman gardens
include roses, narcissi, oleanders, violets, crocus, narcissus, lily, gladioli, iris, poppy, amaranth, and wildflowers. Ivy,
acanthus, myrtle, box, and yew usually appeared in more complex gardens, as did plane and Cyprus trees.

The Peristyle Garden:

The peristyle was a Hellenistic feature and had begun as a
colonnaded courtyard in the center of Greek houses.
However, the Romans innovatively took this concept and
transformed this central courtyard into a garden.
Peristyle gardens consisted of a series of formal flower
beds, edged with small shrubs or box hedges and
surrounded by pathways. Water features and garden
statues, as well as small shrines, mingled amongst the
plants to form visual focal points which could be used to
intrigue and entertain guests. Favorite garden ornaments
included statues or decorative hanging disks of depicting
the gods. Priapus and Bacchus/Dionysus became
popularly featured garden deities.
Peristyle garden in the House of the Vetti, Pompeii
Villa Gardens:
Typically, country villas had not one garden but
several, all varying regarding design and
function. Some gardens were functional whereas
others were ornamental or recreational.
Ornamental gardens were a larger version of the
townhouse peristyle. Flower beds, elaborately
arranged in different shapes or presented on
raised terraces were contained in colonnades
with hedges, trees, and water features.
Often, these gardens would have their own
buildings separate from the rest of the house.
Pliny the Younger describes a self-contained
garden retreat at his country home. This design
finds its echo in the pergola in the garden of The
House of Diomedes, situated on the edge of
Pompeii.
Viridarium in the Villa oplontis. Copyright: Natasha
Sheldon
 ITALY
The Italian Renaissance Garden of the late 15th century was created from a combination of the villa, the garden, the
landscape and the sculptural form. It was inspired by the ancient Roman garden. This later became very popular all
over Europe. 
The Italian Renaissance Garden has classical order and beauty. There are views of the garden and the landscape
beyond. The gardens were designed for contemplation. In the late Renaissance, the gardens became more formal. The
Medici Family in Florence used their gardens to demonstrate power and wealth. They commissioned sculptors
resulting in the gardens becoming grander and more symmetrical. There were statues, marble columns, vases, water,
fountains, ponds, porticos and grottos. As well as stone sculptures, topiary was also used for statuary.  Sculptures are
often more impressive if they are combined with formal hedging and topiary. Pliny, The Younger, preferred topiary
sculptures constructed from plants and soil. This can be seen at The Quaracchi Gardens in Tuscany.

The gardens of Vatican city

 FRANCE
The focus of the garden tends to be the house, usually a palace or chateau and paths radiate out of this creating long
axial views. A geometric plan is used and symmetry is very important. A central axis leads away from the house -
perpendicular to the house. Paths tend to be gravel and edged with clipped hedges and topiary laid out in symmetrical
patterns. Water is often a key feature of French garden design and lots of round pools and long rectangles of water
will be incorporated, the reflection of the water adding to the symmetry and tranquillity of the scene.  Fountains and
cascades are also very common features. Close to the house planting is kept low (no trees) and tends to consist of
parterres. Parterres close to the house can be quite intricately patterned and will tend to become more simple further
from the house. Further from the house paths are often edged with trees, these are almost almost always
manipulated in some way (see below). Trees are always planted in straight lines adding perspective and reinforcing the
symmetry of the garden. Statuary is often used in French Garden Design. Pavilions and 'follies' are often incorporated
too. In the great French formal gardens there is almost always a terrace from where the garden and its symmetry can
be seen from above

Garden at Palace of Versailles

ENGLAND
English Landscape Gardens :
In English gardens lines are no longer straight, paths curve and
wander, and parterres are replaced by grass. Trees were
planted in clusters rather than in straight lines, and rounded
lakes replaced the rectangular ponds of the earlier style. The
garden became open, a park joining the house to the outside
world rather than a carefully nurtured refuge from it.
The landscape garden made the English country house a part
of the fields and farmlands surrounding it. Grass parkland was
brought right up to the doors of the house. The greatest
surviving landscape gardens by Capability Brown are
at Longleat(Wiltshire), Burghley
House (Lincolnshire), Petworth House (West Sussex),
and Blenheim Palace (Oxon).  Garden of Burghley House
Some notable English gardeners areKent Lancelot Brown and
Humphrey Repton

Victorian Gardens :
In the Victorian era the pendulum swung again, to massed
beds of flowers (bedding out plants raised in greenhouses),
exotic colours, and intricate designs. The most influential
gardeners of this period were J.C. Loudon, and later, Joseph
Paxton. The Victorian period also saw a profusion of public
gardens and green spaces aimed at bringing culture to the
masses. Some of the finest Victorian gardens are public parks,
like People's Park in Halifax. 

People's Park in Halifax

THE MIDDLE-EAST
PERSIAN GARDENS
The property includes nine gardens in as many provinces. They exemplify the diversity of Persian garden designs that
evolved and adapted to different climate conditions while retaining principles that have their roots in the times of
Cyrus the Great, 6th century BC. Always divided into four sectors, with water playing an important role for both
irrigation and ornamentation, the Persian garden was conceived to symbolize Eden and the four Zoroastrian
elements of sky, earth, water and plants. These gardens, dating back to different periods since the 6th century BC,
also feature buildings, pavilions and walls, as well as sophisticated irrigation systems. They have influenced the art of
garden design as far as India and Spain. The Persian Garden, through its components, has developed alongside the
evolution of the Persian society, while adhering to its early geometric model, the Chahar Bagh. Pasargadae and
Bagh-e Abas Abad may be read as fossil landscapes while the other seven gardens retain their active role within
their physical and social contexts.

Jardin persan, Iran

THE EASTERN CIVILIZATION
CHINESE GARDENS
Chinese gardens are significant pieces of China's history. Garden designs
have gone hand in hand with the philosophical trends of each era. Five
thousand years of gardening has yielded some of the most amazing and
beautiful paradigms of what a garden can be.
Several dynastic periods added a new way of looking at gardens since the
concept was established as an important part of an emperor's or an
official's residence.
The Lin Garden was embellished with little palaces, pavilions and rooms
on little islands in a pond, and plants were added for beautification. This
is attributed to the Qin (221–206 BC) and Han dynasties.
The Wei Dynasty (220–265) added a new twist of suggesting rivers and
mountains for style, to bring in more qualities of nature. Upper classes
would travel to rivers and mountains for pleasure, and liked the new title
of the garden, which was "the garden with natural mountains and rivers."
The contribution of the Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties to
classical gardening was to bring facets of art and literature into the make
up of the garden. Descriptions and paintings were meticulously copied to
create gardens exactly like those seen or read about. The garden was
then renamed "the garden imitating mountains and rivers."
Following in that vein, the Song (960–1279) and Yuan (1271–
1368) dynasties took it a step further. Writers and artists took active roles
in garden design. Rocks were situated in spots more suited to the gazing
pleasure of the emperor.
Emperor Kangxi of the Ming Dynasty (1386–1644) and Emperor Qianlong Jichang Garden built by Ming dynasty
of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) again brought focus to the building
structures in the garden, but specifically to enhance appearance.
Buildings were added solely to create pleasant or striking scenery. The
royal garden evolved with time and changing tastes over the centuries
and inspired gardens in other areas of China.
JAPANESE GARDENS
Japanese gardens are generally classified according to the nature of the terrain, either tsuki-yama (“artificial hills”)
or hira-niwa (“level ground”), each having particular features. Tsuki-yama consists of hills and ponds, and hira-
niwa consists of flat ground designed to represent a valley or moor; tsuki-yama may include a portion laid out
as hira-niwa. Each type may, furthermore, be treated in any one of the three degrees of elaboration mentioned. Hill
gardens as a rule include a stream and a pond of real water, but there is a special variation, the kare-sansui (dried-up
landscape) style, in which rocks are composed to suggest a waterfall and its basin and, for a winding stream or a
pond, gravel or sand is used to symbolize water or to suggest seasonally dried-up terrain.

Characteristic Features
Japanese gardens are characterized by: the waterfall, of which there are ten or more different arrangements;
the spring and stream to which it gives rise; the lake; hills, built up from earth excavated from the basin for the lake;
islands; bridges of many varieties; and the natural guardian stones. The selection and effective distribution of the
stones are a prime consideration in garden design. After endless experiments and deep pondering, the best and
most subtle compositions were handed down by means of drawings. A studied irregularity in the arrangement of
stepping stones is a noteworthy feature of the chanoyu garden, where beauty and use are combined.

Ryoanji Temple Kenrokuen Garden

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PERIOD IN INDIA
MUGHAL GARDENS
Mughal gardens served various functions which included their use as airy quadrangles within the confines of the
Mughals’ fort-palaces, pleasurable retreats from the urban centre, and also as a base for hunting expeditions. The
garden Jahangir commissioned at Sheikhupura in Punjab (Pakistan), is a perfect example of the latter type of garden.
The Mughals created gardens in both urban areas, for rest and relaxation, and rural areas where they served as
halting places for the royal family and their entourage. Tomb gardens were a different variety with a much more
defined role: to represent the gardens of Paradise within which the deceased would find themselves in the afterlife.
 The Taj Mahal is again the supreme example of this.

The tomb gardens of the Mughals were therefore conceptualised as earthly versions of the Gardens of Paradise.
According to the Quran, heaven is an allegorical garden in which the deceased will ever after dwell. The notion of
the tomb garden being representative of Paradise was also reflected in the structures erected in these spaces.
 Until the reign of Shah Jahan, the classical format for the Mughal garden was an enclosed space with a structure at
its centre, an entrance gate (or multiple ones), and subsidiary structures, usually pavilions, set into the remaining
walls. During Shah Jahan’s reign, more importance was placed on gardens in which the main building was
constructed at one end of the space and not at its centre. The Taj Mahal again serves as the epitome of this type of
garden plan as it was constructed not in the centre of the tomb garden, but on a platform at the end of it,
overlooking the river. This brings up an important aspect of Shah Jahani architecture, which was the importance of
the riverfront garden.

The garden Charbagh,

leading upto Humayun’s
the Taj Mahal tomb
 Another garden-type Shah Jahan is often associated
with is the terraced garden, the most famous of
which are the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir and
Lahore. He constructed the first Shalimar Gardens in
Kashmir while still a prince at the command of
Jahangir, but once Emperor he commissioned two
further Shalimar Gardens in Lahore and Delhi, the
latter of which no trace remains. All three were
constructed as terraced gardens, the concept of
which was also imported from Central Asia. When
completed, the Shalimar gardens in Lahore (Fig. 4)
were where Shah Jahan would stay on his visits to
the city instead of within the Shahi Qila, the city’s
fort. It was constructed on three terraces, the top
terrace, called the Fara Baksh Bagh (‘joy-imparting
garden’), which was reserved for the Emperor and
the royal family, while the bottom terrace, the Fayz
Baksh Bagh (‘bounty-bestowing garden’), was where
the court retinue would stay. The middle terrace was
composed of a large pool with fountains, pavilions
and multiple flower beds (Fig. 5). An intricate water-
engineering and hydraulic system was needed for
the garden to have running water and spurting
fountains, and the water necessary for this was
transported to the site from the river Ravi by a canal
system designed by one of Shah Jahan’s courtiers.

The Shalimar Bagh pavilions in the periphery of Dal Lake

RAJPUT GARDENS
The Rajputs, a warrior class, retained much of their power during periods of Mughal and European influence. The
style of their palaces and gardens became partly Hindu and partly foreign-influenced, their form relating to the
classic Indian townhouse and farmhouse (haveli): rooms opening onto a courtyard (chowk) with a wall to give
protection from the outside world. Palace forts had immensely strong fortifications and specialised chowks for men,
women, relatives, guests, cooking, horses etc. Under Muslim influence, and with increased prosperity, chowks
developed into paradise gardens. This was a progressive development with garden design playing an increasingly
significant part in palace layout.
Orchha, on a fortified island in the River Betwa, has several palaces within its walls, some with gardens. Chittor has a
great fortress, on a ridge, with roof terraces and balconies overlooking the surrounding landscape. Udaipur is a vast
composition of palace, garden courts, artificial lake, island gardens, forests and hunting lodges. Mandu –The ‘City of
Joy’ - has a spectacular site and a garden palace (Jahaz Mahal) built between two lakes. Amber has an island garden
outside its fortifications, internal garden courts and an old mardana with a central chowk. Jaipur is an integrated
palace and city design. Deeg is protected by moats and fortifications but the palace buildings are located on the axes
of a chahar bagh type garden.

Auwa fort, Auwa Bhainsrorgarh Fort, Bhainsrorgarh

COLONIAL LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
Sir Edwin Landseer Lutyens, was a leading 20th century British architect and garden designer. who is known for
imaginatively adapting traditional architectural styles to the requirements of his era. His designs all followed the Arts
and Crafts style, but in the early 1900s his work became more classical in style. Lutyens worked on many projects,
producing some of the best country houses and gardens which have ever been made in England. Lutyens had
initially designed Delhi with all the streets crossing at right angles, much like in New York. The plan reflects Lutyens’
“transcendent fervour for geometric symmetry,” which is expressed through amazing sequences of triangles and
hexagons, through sightlines and axes. 

Rashtrapathi Bhavan gardens:

1. Mughal Garden:
•Rashrapati Bhavan was completed in 1929.
•The architecture of the palace is a mixture of Indian and Western Style.
•The gardens popularly known as Mughal gardens was laid on the pattern of Mughal gardens with conventional
arrangement of terraces, water channels etc.
•The main garden area is roughly 134 square meters and is meters from all sides by a paved red stone path.
•Two canals each of 5.40 m width run from north to south and two similar canals intersect these to form a 60m2
area island in the center.

2. The features of the garden include:

•A beautiful visiting spot especially during the winter when innumerable seasonal flowers bloom.

3. Rose Garden:
•Good collection of Bougainvilleas, different bulbous plants as well as flowering trees which ensure enough of colour
throughout the year.
•A large collection of roses.
•Green houses with collection of orchids, succulents and ferns.
•A large number of trees which are clipped in the topiary style.
Gardens of Rashtrapathi bhawan
CONTEMPORARY ATTITUDES TO LANDSCAPE
WHAT IS CONTEMPORARY? Contemporary literally has to be one of the broadest categories in terms of style and
design. By definition, contemporary means, belonging to or occurring in the present. Based on this definition,
contemporary is not a static style. Instead, it is always changing

WHAT IS MODERN GARDEN? Modern gardens are characterized by being clean-lined, hard-edged, and minimalistic.
Modern landscape usually tends to have concrete and/or metal incorporated into the design and holds true to the
cliché that less is more.
There is an ever-growing trend toward a simple, contemporary garden – one that works for a smaller yard or for those
seeking a water-wise or an easy-care garden. These gardens have an emphasis on hardscape of stone, wood and
concrete, with bold architectural plants incorporated. Water features, sculpture and containers are important in the
contemporary garden; and plants, while fewer in numbers, are actually highlighted and add drama. We are more likely
to notice a plant’s stunning attributes when it is not competing against scores of other plants for attention.

CONTEMPORARY FURNITURE Reflections of the great modern-era designers can be found in the furniture for these
gardens. Stainless steel and chrome alternate with dense polyester mesh and bright plastics to render these functional
places to recline or dine into stylish environments.

SOME PRINCIPLES OF CONTEMPORARY GARDEN DESIGN:

Planting - Contemporary planting schemes can be best identified by few elements: a) Meaning, really a choice of just a
few plant varieties. Not as many as in a cottage garden. Strong groups of the same: think 10′s and 20′s rather than 3′s
and 5′s. b)Dramatic statements. Usually achieved with plants with strong foliage or texture. 4. Few Materials - Few
materials work best, also choose materials which contrast well. Natural (elemental ) materials always can be favoured,
but many designers use plastic, concrete and a whole range of synthetic products with great contemporary effect.

Neatly organized lines of stiff, sculptural plants are the norm in many contemporary landscapes, as though the
architect wanted to impose the minimalist structure of the building on the exterior spaces. Yet this type of planting
style seems to utterly reject any relationship with the natural world.
Plants with bold silhouettes have a clean look which feels appropriate next to the architecture. The designs of the
outer edges of the planted areas almost as one would weave a tapestry, creating a loose fabric of textures and colors
which blurs the boundary lines of the landscape and visually claims the scenery beyond
The layout of the landscape also plays a part in adding warmth.
1. SIMPLE GEOMETRY Like classical architecture, formal
garden design has its roots in the geometry of Greek and
Roman architecture. Formal gardens tend to emphasize
straight lines, right angles and circles.
2.  BALANCED PROPORTIONS Proportion: How the size of
each part of the garden relates to the whole — is central to
classical architecture and landscape design. Mathematical
principles such as the golden ratio and the Fibonacci series
(0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 …) have been used for centuries as
ways to bring beauty and balance to designs.
3. DESIGNINGALONG THE AXIS: Much classical landscape
design makes use of bilateral symmetry, in which shapes
and forms of equal size are placed opposite one another at
a point or along an axis. This creates a sense of order and
gives the design a feeling of balance. In a large garden,
long axes tend to dominate, but in a smaller garden they
can be an efficient way to use limited space: Symmetrical
gardens tend to be calming and don’t jar the eye. Axes are
often terminated with a focal point (a piece of sculpture or
a plant with a sculptural quality) whose form contrasts
with the straight lines of the design.
4.  COHESION: Repeating forms throughout a garden can help
bring cohesion to a design. Here the sharp wooden steps
and trees (plants) bring the cohesion in design.
5. GOOD BONES: Walls, fences, evergreen plantings, paths
and patios are aspects of the garden you can see all year.
They form the structure, or “bones,” of the garden. When
thoughtfully laid out, they provide interest even in winter.